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About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http : //books . google . com/ SCHOOL GEAMMAE BY WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, M.A., LL.D. OITT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS THE CITY OF NEW YORK -.^ : .« . NEW YORK.:. CINCINNATI.:. CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY j THE WEW YOUi: PUBLIC LIBRARY 380848A ASTpR, LENOX AND TIX.D£N FOUNDATIONS A 1828 L OOPTKIGHT, 190T, BT W. H. MAXWELL. HARWELL'S SCHOOL GBAMMAR. w. P. 13 PJIEFAOE This book is intended for those students who desire a more complete treatment of English grammar than is presented in the author's "Elementary Grammar." It contains all the material necessary either for an elementary course or a high school course ; to meet the demands of students, whether they leave school at any time after the eighth year or whether they are preparing for college entrance examinations. It will be found to cover fully the requirements of the Syllabus in Eng- lish issued by the New York State Department of Education. Particular attention is invited to the scientific order of topics, to the absence of unnecessary detail in explanations, to the method of combining analysis and parsing, to the practical character of the exercises, to the systematic reviews of ety- mology, syntax, and analysis, and to the classification of common errors in speech. All the valuable features of my " Advanced Lessons in English Grammar " have been retained in this book. The nomenclature of English grammar is still far from settled. I have adopted that which seems to me the simplest and most consistent, and in Appendix C have presented a table of equivalent terms employed by other grammarians. In preparing this book I have had the assistance of Miss Emma L. Johnston, Principal of the Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, whose technical knowledge and literary taste rendered her cooperation invaluable. W. H. M. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS 1. As far as possible, have each lesson read aloud in class. 2. Do not waste time in so-called "development" lessons. Train your pupils to depend upon the book alone for explana- tions, definitions, etc. The ability to get for himself from books a knowledge of principles and rules should be not the least of the results flowing from the use of this text-book in the classroom. 3. Have your pupils commit the definitions to memory so thoroughly that they will remain a permanent possession. . 4. Accustom your pupils to make constant use of the table of contents and of the index. 5. Teach them to use the book as a book of reference when correcting their own compositions and when studying literature critically. 6. In case students take uo this book without having stud- ied an elementary treatise, the teacher should use discretion in omitting, during a first reading, such of the details printed in smaller type as appear too difficult. W. H. M. CONTENTS PAGB L Thb Divisions of Grammar 7 Orthoepy 7 Orthography 8 Etymology • . 9 Syntax 9 Prosody 10 n. The Parts of Speech 11 The Noun 11 The Verb 12 The Pronoun 14 The Adjective 16 The Adverb 18 The Preposition 20 The Conjunction 23 The Interjection 26 m. Elements of the Sentence 29 Sentences classified according to Use .... 29 Subject and Predicate 31 The Complement of a Verb 36 Adjective Modifiers 39 Adverbial Modifiers 42 Independent Elements 44 Review of Phrases and Clauses 46 IV. Classification of Sentences 51 Analysis and Synthesis 61 The Simple Sentence 52 The Complex Sentence 58 The Compound Sentence 63 V. Etymology . 67 The Noun 67 Classes of Nouns 67 Inflections of Nouns 71 Gender 78 Case 82 The Declension of Nouns 87 Person 88 Substitutes for Nouns SQ Parsing the Noun • . ^^ 5 CONTENTS PA6B The Pronoun 91 Personal Pronouns 92 . Interrogative Pronouns 99 Relative Pronouns 102 -» Adjective Pronouns .111 The Adjective 118 Classes 118 Degrees of Comparison 123 Substitutes for the Adjective 127 Parsing the Adjective 128 The Verb . . .129 Classes of Verbs 130 Voice 134 Mode 136 Tense . 141 Number and Person 146 Verbals, — Infinitives and Participles . . . .160 Verb Phrases . . 161 Conjugation •• . 167 List of Irregular Verbs 184 Parsing the Verb . . . . . . .187 The Adverb 189 Classes 189 Comparison 192 Substitutes for the Adverb 193 Parsing- 1D4 The Preposition 195 Parsing . . . . . . . . . 199 The Conjunction ........ 201 Classes 201 Parsing . 204 VI. Syntax 209 Concord 209 Grovemment , * 224 Modification 225 Order of Words 227 Ellipsis . 237 Rules for Capitals 240 Rules for Punctuation 243 VII. General Review 251 Etymology and Syntax 251 Common Errors in Speteh Classified .... 255 Vni. Pbosody 263 V Appendix A. Histobical Sketch op the English Language . 275 '•» Appendix B. Formation of Words 284 "^ A ppENDix C. Equivalent Terms 306 Index ............. 309 SCHOOL GRAMMAR I. THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR Language is the name given to any means of ex- pressing thoughts or feelings. The most important varieties of language are spoken language and written language. Spoken language and written language are made up of wordsj and words are united in grcmps called sentences. Grammar tells us how words are formed, how they are classified, how they are joined to form sentences, how sentences, are classified, and the relations that both words and sentences bear one to another. Hence, grammar has to do, 1. With words separately considered ; that is, not united to express thought. 2. With words joined in sentences. A spoken word is a sound, or- a combination of sounds, having a meaning. . Definition. — Orthoepy is that part of grammar which treats of the correct pronunciation of words. The subject of orthoepy will not be treated in this book, since it may be studied from dictionaries. 8 THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAB When a word is written or printed, certain char- acters called letters are used to represent the sounds of the spoken word. Definition. — Orthography is that part of gram- mar which treats of the correct representation by letters of the sounds that make up a word. As the subject of orthography is fully treated in diction- aries, it will not be taken up in this book. The rules for the use of capital letters will be found on pages 240-242. In the study of grammar, words are first classified according to the way in which they are used in sen- tences. This has led to the division of all the words in our language into eight classes, called parts of speech. It will be found, however, that nearly all of these classes or parts of speech may be further sub- divided. This process of arranging the words of a language in classes is called classification. Again, if you will look carefully at a sentence, such as Charles rode on his father's horse, you will notice that three of the words, rode^ his^ smd father s^ are modifications of other words, and that each modi- fication is made in order to express a variation of meaning. Bode is a modification of ride, -made in order to indicate that the event took place in past time. His is a modification of he, and fathers of father, in both cases* made in order to show posses- sion. All such changes are called inflections. Then again, in studying words, we may consider THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR 9 not only the classes into which they are divided, and the changes they undergo in order to express our meaning, but also their growth and structure. Some words are prime ; that is, they can not be traced back to any simpler words in the language ; as, Toariy bushy tree. Others are compound ; that is, are composed of two or more simple words ; as, rose-hush, apple-tree. Others are derivative ; that is, are built up by adding pre- fixes (syllables placed before) or suffixes (endings) to simple words ; as, befriend and friendship, from friend. Word formation deals with the study of the growth and structure of words. Summing up, we may say that words are studied as to their classijication, as to their inflection, and as to t\i^Y£ formation. These are the main divisions of that part of grammar known as Etyinology; Definition. — Etymology is that part of grammar which treats of the classification, inflection, and forma- tion of words. But grammar, as we have learned, treats not only of individual words, but also of the joining of words in sentences. Definition. — Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the way in which words are joined in sentences. Syntax lays down the rules that govern the for- , fnation of all sentences, whether in prose or in verse. 10 THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR In addition, however, to the rules of syntax, there are special rules for the arrangement of words in the musically measured sentences used in poetry. Definition. — Prosody is that part of grammar which treats of the rules that govern verse. n. THE PARTS OF SPEECH THE NOUN All the words in our language are arranged in classes called parts of speech. The vse that is made of any particular word determines the class to which it belongs. If we examine the sentence employed in speaking and writing, we find that the different uses that can be made of words are not many. One of the largest and most important classes of words is made up of the names of the things that we speak and write about. The words boy, homey memory^ kindness^ etc., are examples of this class. Such words are called nouns, — a word that means names. In the following sentences the nouns are in full- faced type : Flowers and ferns grew on the bank of the lake. The prince was dad in a garment of velvet that glistened with gems* The next gale thai sweeps from the north mil bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms. The war of the Colonies against England excited much s/m- ; path/ in Europe. Definition. — A noun is a word used as the name of something. 11 12 THE PARTS OF SPEECH Exercise 1. — Use the following loords as nouns : • walk dream weather dust watch lock leaves ground stand button chain soil dress THE VERB fish plant Every sentence has two parts. One part consists of the word or words used to denote that about which something is said ; it is called the subject of the sen- tence. The other part consists of the word or words used to denote that which is said of the subject ; this is called the predicate of the sentence. In the following sentences the predicates are printed in full-faced type, the subjects in italics : The minstrel was infirm and old. Into the Jaws of death rode the six hundred. Every predicate consists of or contains a part of speech called the verb. That the verb is considered • to be the most important of all the parts of speech is indicated by its name verb^ from verbum, which signi- fies word. \ In a sentence of the kind that tells what things do ^ the verb expresses action. Such a verb may consist | of one word or more than one. The wind blew. The cock is crowing. The horse has eaten the oats. In a sentence of the kind that tells what is done to ihings the verb expresses action and consists of two words at least. THE VEBB 13 77^6 kites were tossed on high. The children were being dressed for school. The hoy has been promoted twice this year. In sentences that tell what the qualities of things are or what things are the verb expresses mere state of being. The rose is red. Longfellow was a poet. Whether a verb expresses action or mere state of beings it is always a word used to say something about some person or thing. Definition. — A verb is a word used to say some- "thrng about some person or thing. Exercise 2. — Tell of each of the italicized words whether it is a noun or a verb. 1. The warrior arms himself quickly. 2. Lay down your arms. 3. t^y to cover. 4 Cover the jar to keep out thztjly. 5. The boat has lost its sail. 6. Let us sail across the lake. 7. How much will it cost to paper the walls of this room ? 8. The paper is fifty cents a roll. Exercise 3. — Use as a verb each word given in Exercise 1. Exercise 4. — In the following sentences the predir totes are printed in italics. Find the verb in ea^h 1. The meteor of the ocean air ShaU sweep the clouds no more. 2. The minstrel was infirm and old. 1 14 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 3. The river is flowing toward the sea. 4. The bricklayers Jwd left a very small hole near the top of the granary, 6. The prince was dressed in a gorgeous robe, 6. The poor little dog had been hurt by a wagon. 7. By the shining Big-SeorWater, JStpod the wigwam of Nokomis. 8. Oler the dark wave Iflew With the marauders. 9. Snu^ and safe is this nest of ours. THE PRONOUN There is a part of speech employed as a substitute for the noun. It is called the pronoun. Pro means for or instead of.. By using the pronoun, we are able to avoid the awkwardness of speech that would come from frequently repeating a noun. For example, without the pronoun we could not easily avoid such sentences as, Mary said that Mary would study Mary*s lessons. The boys promised the boys* teacher that tJie boys would obej the teacher's requests. With the aid of pronouns, these sentences are- much improved: Mary said that she would study her lessons. ■:\ The boys promised their teacher that the/ would obey h/A i requests. j!f? Another great advantage arising from the use o!t>.' the pronoun is that a single pronoun may denote a mui|| titude of persons or things, all having different namegH THE PRONOUN 15 or even names that are not known by the speaker. Thus the pupils in a school, or the persons in a crowd on the street, may be denoted by such pronouns as you^ your, they, their, them, all, these, we, who, whom, which, etc. Have a// finished their examples 9 These are citizens, but those are soldiers. Definition. — A pronoun is a word that denotes persons or things without naming them. Exercise 5. — Fill the blanks with pronouns, and then make a list of the pronouns. 1. am monarch of all survey. right there is none to dispute. 2. Give liberty or give death. 3. Over the river and through the wood, To grandfather's house go. 4. Father who art in heaven, hallowed be name. 5. Let have peace. 6. Speak clearly if speak at all ; Carve every word before let it fall. 7. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend ears. 8. Every man should think that is responsible for own actions and that no one can relieve of this responsibility. 9. In attic window the staff set To show that one heart was loyal yet. 10. The falcon's bill has a deep notch in . 11. Then the little Hiawatha Learned of every bird language. 16 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 12. Flash'd all sabers bare, Flashed as turned in air. 13. Cannon to right of , Cannon to left of . THE ADJECTIVE Things that have the same name are often very different from one -another. For example, the word apple is the name of a class of things so much alike that we may call them all by the same name ; yet it is difl&cult to find two that are exactly alike in every respect. They have differences in color, size, taste, etc. , and these differences are denoted by such words as red, y yellow J large, sweet, smooth, ripe, etc. Again, they are distinguished by words denoting their situation, num- ber, etc.; as when we say, this apple, that apple, these apples, any apple, two apples, some apples, many apples y the apple, an apple, etc. By using with a noun such a word as red, this, two,^ etc., we limit or confine the application of the noun sci that it includes only the thing or things we mean and not the whole class of things denoted by the noun. Such words are called adjectives. In the same way an adjective may be used with a pronoun, as in the exclamation, me miserable I The word adjective means joined to. This class of words gets its name from the fact that the adjectivej^ generally stands next to the noun to which it belongs.^ Thus, good hoys, luscious grapes, a girl. Frequently I THE ADJECTIVE 17 however, the adjective is separated from the noun to which it belongs by some other word or words. The boys are good. The man looked sick. The adjectives in the following sentences are in full-faced type: A iailj stately lily grew beside a pretty bed of modest little violets. A beautiful bird sat on a lofty bought and sang a melodious song. The wise old owl dozed in an ancient tower, ruined and ivy- cowered. ^ Definition. — An adjective is a word used with a ' noun or a pronoun to describe or limit its meaning. Exercise 6. — Point out all the nouns and adjectives. Tell to what noun each adjective belongs. 1. The thirsty, weary traveler drank of the cool, clear waters of the spring. 2. A wonderful castle, tall and grand, was buUt on a hill beside the beautiful Rhine. 3. People in cold countries wear garments of thick, warm fur. 4. The peddler, a lame, unshaven fellow, had a tattered blue umbrella and a basket of old newspapers and worn pamphlets. 5. On the banks of the Xenil, the dark Spanish maiden Comes up with the fruit of the tangled vine laden. 6. On the wide lawn, the snow lay white and deep. 7. The Danish king could not repel the ocean tide. 8. The belfry tower of the Old North Church rose above the graves on the hill, lonely and spectral and somber and still. 9. Above the mist rose the snowy summits of sharp needles ijof rock, which seemed to float in the air, like fairies. J WAX. BOH. ORAIE. — 2 18 THE PARTS OF SPEECH Exercise 7. — Tell of each italicized word whether it is a noun, a verb, or an adjective. 1. Do not cross a bridge before you come to it. 2. . How the cross glitters I 3. The little boy was cross and unhappy. 4. Can you still the waves ? 5. The woods were stiU at noon. 6. There is a still in this building. 7. Put an iron on the stove. 8. Now you may iron the clothes. 9. Stone walls do not a prison make, nor iron bars a cage. 10. Give the queen a hearty welcome. 11. Welcome her, thunders of fort and of fleet ! 12. The sound of the bell is welcome. THE ADVERB We have seen that an adjective is joined to a noun to describe or limit its meaning. Just as the noun apple is applied to a great many things that resemble one another, and differ in color, number, etc., so the verb go denotes action of which there are many vari- eties with respect to the time, manner, and place of its performance. The men go slowly. rapidly. cheerfully. daily. now. there. The ear goes easily, smoothly, downward. yonder. constantly. soon. A word thus used with a verb to denote the time, Ij place, manner, or some other characteristic of the|J THE ADVERB 19 action expressed by the verb, is called an adverb. The nearness of the adverb to the verb is implied in the name adverb j meaning near or at the verb. The adverb is joined also to the adjective, generally to denote the degree or measure in which the meaning expressed by the adjective is to be understood. The girls are not nearly quiie ready. James is extremely very slightly ' sick. Again, an adverb is often joined to another adverb to indicate the degree or measure of the meaning of the latter. The ship sailed very swiftly. He spoke somewhat hopefully. The adjective and the adverb are said to modify the meaning of the words to which they belong ; that is, they cha'iige or measure the meaning of those words. Hence they are sometimes called modifiers. . Defiihtion. — An adverb is a word used to modify Mjhe meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Exercise 8.^ — Point out the verbs and the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell the word whose meaning each adverb modifies : : 1. The judge rode slowly down the lane. ^ 2. The brook ripples and dances merrily on its way to the 'pcean. .^ jj 3. The moon shone softly through the trees. ; 'fl 4 The lady sang very sweetly a song I had often heard in Iflmy childhood. 20 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 5. The traveler rapidly climbed the hill and soon was gazing eagerly into the beautiful valley. Q. The lark flies swiftly and soars very high. 7. Many very poor people live respectably and comfortably. 8. The ship that sailed away so gayly never came back. 9. The young hunter held his rifle carefully and shot di- rectly upward. Exercise 9. — Use each of the following words as an adverb and as an adjective : still only hard more much fast ■ loud most _ THE PREPOSITION If the words that make up a sentence be disar- ranged, that is, if their relations to one another be destroyed, we get a meaningless result. Thus, the following words express no thought : ITie room miidow entered the open an man through. But if they are arranged so as to be properly ra* lated to one another, we have a sentence. The man entered tJie room through an open window. There is a class of words whose use is to connect and bring into relation two unrelated words, one ol which is a noun or a pronoun. A word of this kindv is called a preposition, the name being derived fronl two Latin words meaning placed before. t to ] fin about by with hiw„ A castle ' 0¥er ^-the sea against upon /or J [unt/or Speak THE PRSP08ITI0N 21 Weary (of I i from c labor. Dm-inition. — A preposition is a word used to show tne relation between a noun or a pronoun and some other word, — a verb, an adjective, another noun, or a pronoun. The preposition and its accompanying noun or pronoun, either with or without modifying words, form what is called a phrase. A phrase so formed is called a prepositional phrase, to distinguish it from other kinds of phrases of which we shall learn here- after. ITie canoe floated down the riwer* He sat within a small, cheerless, unfurnished room. The noun or pronoun following a preposition is called the object of the preposition ; and the preposi- tion is said to connect the object with some word that usually precedes the preposition. Thus, in the foregoing sentences, river is the object of the preposition down; and dovm connects ^ooied and river. Exercise 10. — Fill the blanks with prepositions from th£ following list, in order to bring the words into relation : at- up upon above about beyond by down into below after across on- with under beside before between of within near beneath until against for- over amid among around through from ' past aboard opposite during concerning 22 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 1. dropped the clouds. 2. waited the station. 3. waited the train. 4. watched my bedside. 5. knelt the rug. 6. a field the house. 7. diameter a circle. 8. a dream 9. ill fever. home. the continent. - friends. 10. traveled 11. quarrels 12. ladder the bam. 13. nest the branches. 14. asleep - 15. friends 16. life 17. house — the sermon - the seas. 18. wrecked the grave. — the corner. - the coast. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. walk — degrees work — went — dived — breakfast. — zero, sundown, his business. the waves. — the poor. 24. errands - 25. letter a cousin. 26. soar the clouds. Exercise 11. — Fill the blanks with prepositions from the foregoing list, that will connect the words and bring them into relation. 1. Heaven hides all creatures the book fate. 2. Ten vessels came port the storm. -^ their parents, a bench which stood 3. The boys live home 4. Henry found his ball — the old oak. 6. The storms a century have whistled the branches this famous tree. 6. The travelers went the ocean, the burning sands the desert, high mountains and deep val- leys, and returned home many months sight-seeing. 7. The boat went the tide, but the wind. 8. The farmers hide the kernels — :— corn the cool, damp earth. 9. As we walked the meadow we heard the bleating the flocks the hill. 10. Every moment that flies our heads takes the future and gives the past. THE CONJUNCTION 23 11. Our canoe touched the shore, • a short distance — the spot where our friends were standing. 12. The children went out the shower to gather flowers — the hillside. 13. Clouds gather the storm, but sunshine follows -^— it. 14. I shot an arrow the air. 15. The traveler told us his thrilling adventure a lion. THE CONJUNCTION Another class of connecting words is the conjunc- tion, — a word that means joining together. The preposition, as we have seen, connects words, and brings them into relation. The conjunction generally connects two or more sentences so that they form one sentence. and because if therefore The mountains look blue they are far away. Although the principal office of conjunctions is to unite sentences, yet some of them, especially and, are sometimes used to connect words. They are brother and sister. The lady wore a bla^ck and white dress. Unlike the preposition, the conjunction can not be . jused as the introductory word in a phrase. This is the best test by which the preposition may always be distinguished from the conjunction. ^i V 24 THE PARTS OF SPEECH In uniting two or more sentences by means of con junctions, there is often a great saving of words. The resulting sentence, however, may always be sepa- rated into the sentences from which it was derived. My cousin fished and swam in the lake on Saturday. This sentence consists of two sentences, united and shortened : ( My cousin fisJied in the lake on Saturday. \ My cousin swam in the lake on Saturday, When the conjunction is used to connect words in a sentence, the sentence can not be decomposed in the way shown above. Thus, take the sentence, The human body consists principally of bloody fleshy and bone. This is not equivalent to The human body consists principally of blood. The hum^m body consists principally of flesh. The human body consists prindpcClly of bone. Conjunctions often occur in pairs, and sometimes the first of a pair is used not to connect^ but to introduce* Though he were a giant, yet I should not fear him. He is neither honest nor truthful. He is either sick or very tired. Definition. — A conjunction is a word used to con nect parts of sentences. Exercise 12. — From the following list select suit\ able conjunctions to fill the blanks: \i ^ THE CONJUNCTION 25 md nor that except therefore >ut so . unless although nevertheless :or if whether hence notwithstanding )r else either _ because in order that ret _than . neither however so that 1. He was punished, — — he was guilty. 2. He was pardoned, — — he was guilty. 3. I would pay you - I had the money. 4. We can not go we finish our task. 5. He can not cross the river -^ the water is shallow. 6. The man came, he did not stay long. 7. The poor man gave more the rich man. 8. the rain came down in torrents, we started on our journey. 9. I will trust him, he deceived me before. 10. The lady could dance sing, she played leautifully. 11. Everybody believed him, he must have been iruthful. 12. We must go at once, stay at home all day. 13. I will lend you the money, you seem to need it so badly. 14. I have not decided I shall walk ride. 15. The children played outside while the day was fine, — — came into the house as soon as it began to rain. Exercise 13. — Make one sentence of each pair of sentences by using conjunctions selected from the fore- joing list : . Example. — The boy robbed the nest. He was punished for his cruelty. The boy robbed the nest and was punished for his cruelty. 1. His daughter was the light of his eyes. His daughter was the joy of his soul. 26 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 2. The messenger mounted the stairs quickly. The stairs were very steep. 8. Roses love the sunshine. They do not love the shade. 4. Time waits for no man. Tide waits for no man. 6. The teacher reproved the pupil. The pupil failed in recitation. 6. She talks more than she thinks. She talks but little. 7. You will take cold. You are not properly clothed. 8. Our guest will depart. The storm is still raging. 9. I could not weep. I could not laugh. 10. He paid me promptly. I trusted him again* THE INTERJECTION The seven classes of words thus far explained, have each a particular office or function in the sentence. We are able to determine the part of speech to which any particular word in a sentence belongs only by learning how it stands related to other words in the sentence. There is, however, a class of words called thrf interjection, or exclamation^ that has no grammaticajl relation to the other words of a sentence. Interject tions do not aid in the expression of thought^ but them . THE INTERJECTION 27 indicate emotion or feeling. They serve no other pur^ pose than to show by what kind and degree of feeling our thought is accompanied. A/as ! My hoy is dead, Hannah ! We have a holiday. Oh ! Excuse my awkwardness. The words alcts, hurrah, and oA, in the preceding sentences, are called interjections^ — a name that means something thrown in among other things. The name implies that the interjection is not necessary to the grammatical completeness of a sentence. Words commonly used as verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc., are sometimes employed as interjections. Good! That hall was well cavght. Hush ! You will scare the birds. "If" ! What do you mean by " i/" f Well! Have you solved the eosample at last f How ! Are you not ashamed of yourself f Definition. — An interjection is a word express- ing strong feeling, and not related to other words in the sentence. Exercise 14.- —From the following list select suit- dble interjections to fill the blanks : Ohl See! Bang! Hush! Nonsense ! Alii Come! Hallo! Behold! Dear me ! L«l Stop! Well! Huzza! Good-by ! 8<|l Alas! Hurrah ! Hey! Ha, ha! BS^I Help! Hark! There! Farewell ! iUwI Fire! Hem! Shame ! Ah me! Imjl Look! Hist I Indeed I dear I 28 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 1. ! I am surprised to hear it. 2. ! Here comes the train. 3. I shall not see you again. 1 4. ! You can not make me believe that 5. ! He is deceiving you. 6. 1 It was a very funny sight. 7. 1 Is anybody awake within ? 8. ! cried Samoset to. the white men. 9. 1 1 cried the traveler, as the robbero fell upon him. 10. 1 I knew I could do it. 11. ! Did you hear that strange sound ? 12. 1 I do not understand you. 13. ! The clouds are breaking away. 14. The maiden wrung her hands and cried, 1 and 1 15. ! Let me never see you again. 16. 1 ! A victory ! 17. 1 My blood runs cold I 18. The captain said, 1 and ! went the guns. 19. 1 that thou shouldst die. 20. 1 Do not awake the child. Note. — It is well to avoid the use of interjections as xnudi as possible, both in speaking and in writing, particularly th^ us^ to express the feeling of contempt or dislike ; such ai^ fudge! bosh! pshaw I hah! * m. ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE Sentences are used for three purposes: 1. To state or tell something. I am monarch of all I survey. Homer was blind. 2. To ask about something. Have you ever crossed the ocean ? Can you visit ti» to- morrow f 3. To express a command or an entreaty. Distrust the mxm that flatters you. Give us this day our daily bread. Definition. — A sentence is a group of words used as a statement, a question, a command, or an entreaty. A declarative sentence is a sentence that states or declares something. Magellan sailed around the world. An interrogative sentence is a sentence used to ask a question. Can gold gain friendship f An imperative sentence is a sentence that expresses a ecmunand or an entreaty. • Send far a physician. Pity the smrotvs of a poor old man, A dedarative sentence may express strong feeling, siich aa anger, sorrow, grief, etc. The same is true of 39 30 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE interrogative and imperative sentences. Sentences that do this are by some authors called exclamatory sentences. When the feeling expressed is very strong, the sentence should end with an exclamation point, but this kind of punctuation should be used as little as possible. Exclamatory ( WJiat a cowardly wretch you are ! Dbclabatiyb Sentences. ( May I never see your face again! Exclamatory f WasrCt the music grand f { Interrogative Sentences. ( Tlie boy I Oh I where was hef • Exclamatory j ffeap high the farmer's wintry hoard! Impbratiyb Sentences. ( Jump far out, hoy, into the wave ! A declarative sentence may contain a question or a command. The gentleman said, " Is your father at homef The captain shouted, " CJiarge for the batteries ! " An interrogative sentence may contain a declarati?B or an imperative part. Did the teacher say, ^^Tour answer is wrong, John *'f Does not the Bible command, " Swear not at aW 9 An imperative sentence may consist in part of I question or of a statement. Ask yourself often, " Is my o/Gtion right f^^ Read more slowly, " He giveth His beloved sHeep/^ From the use of a sentence, however, there is difl&culty in telling the class to which it belongs. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 81 Exercise 15. — Tell the kind of sentence. 1. Benevolence is a duty and a pleasure. 2. Hast thou a star to guide thy path ? 3. Lead us to some far-off sunny isle. 4. The blackbird whistles from the thorny brake. 5. Shall we always be youthful and laughing and gay ? 6. Oh, could I fly, Td fly with thee! 7. Trust no future, howe'er pleasant. 8. O Hamlet, thou hast cleft my heart in twain ! 9. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! 10. What flower is this that greets the mom ? 11. Who wrote, " I would not live alway " ? 12. " Where is my mother ? '' was his constant inquiry. 13. " Where are you going, my pretty maid ? " 14. " I'm going a-milking, sir, " she said. 15. Ask them, " Why stand ye here all the day idle ? '' SUBJECT AND PREDICATE The elements of a sentence are the parts of which it is composed. Every sentence is composed of two parts, a subject BLad a, jpredicati^. In defining subject and predicate, the declarative sentence is referred to, because it is the kind of sen- tence in most common use. In the declarative sentence, the subject consists of the woxd or words used to denote that about which the statement is made. (Che pfpedicate consists of the word or words that b jAwo the statement. T 82 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE Gold is heavy. The care/ess boy neglected Ids lesson. Up the street came the rebel tread. Your home on the mountain is bleak and wUd. The noisiest dogs are generally the least dangerous. The subject and predicate of an interrogative sen tence are easily recognized if the question is first put into the form of a declarative sentence. Did you see the procession yesterday? Has every pupil in the class prepared his lesson f Whom did the people of Hew York choose for governor f Subjects Pbedigatbs You did see the procession yesterday. Every pupil in the class has prepared his lesson. The people of Hew York did choose whom for governor. The subject of an imperative sentence is . generally thou or youy usually imderstood, but sometimes ex- pressed. The predicate consists of words that express the command or entreaty. You run aivay to school now. Turn not thou away. Definition. — The subject of a sentence denottf that about which something is said. Definition. — The predicate of a sentenoe is Alt which is said of the thinoc denoted by the gabject. i Exercise 16. — In each, af the fdttowing nriifaJp , make the complete subject cams befyre its conqiieteptm i cate: '*' W\ SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 38 1. Six days with the strong north wind our sea-steeds swam the sea. 2. Southward our war fleet sailed. 3. Fourscore were the ships in line. 4. Glorious spoil of war we bore from that house of kings. 5. Suddenly, at these audacious words, up sprang the an- gry guests. 6. Like silent ghosts in misty shrouds Stand out the white lighthouses high. 7. Where, on thy dewy wing, Where art thou journeying ? 8. Little white Lily Sunshine has fed. 9. A fragment of a rainbow bright Through the moist air I see. 10. An exile from home, splendor dazzles in vain. Exercise 17. — Me^itionthe subject and the predi- cate of each of the following sentences: 1. Presently I came in sight of the village church, sitting solitary within its circle of elms. From forth the vestry window projected two small legs, gyrating, hungry for foothold, with larceny in their every wriggle. 1 knew the legs well enough. They were usually attached to the body of Bill Saunders, the peerless bad boy of the village. 2. Two hundred years have changed the character of a grdat continent. 3. How far that little candle throws its beams ! 4« The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 6. The faithful, stout-hearted fellow carried his wounded master on his back. 6. Did the waves wash away your fine castles of sand? 7. Away down south lives a pretty, golden-haired child. 8. Did that mischievous little elf break the spider's web ? MAX. 80H. OBAIE. — 8 84 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 9. In the shade of the trees the weary travelers found rest. 10. That worn old book in the corner of my shelf is one of my truest friends. Sometimes the subject consists of a noun only, as Time flies ; sometimes of a pronoun, as Se walks^ She rides ; sometimes of a noun or pronoun with one or more adjective modifiers, as, The swift boat scvds before the breeze. Friend/ess, home/ess, hope/ess, they wandered from city to cUy. The noun or pronoun denoting that of which something is said is called the subject nourij or the subject pronoun. The subject often consists of two or more words ^ equivalent in meaning to a noun ; as, To err is human. Walking in the hot sun is weary work. In these sentences, to err and walking in the hot sun are called phrases; and because they perform the offices of nouns they are called noun phrases. Sometimes the subject of a sentence is an expression containing itself a subject and a predicate ; as. Why he came to see us soon became evident. An expression used in this way, as the subject gl a sentence, is called a noun clause. (See p. 47*) That he committed the crime was clearly shown at the trUL Phrases and clauses serve for other purposes be* sides those mentioned above, as will be shown herfr after. (See p. 45.) i THE COMPLEMENT OF A VERB 85 Exercise 18. — In the following sentences the subjects are printed in italics. Tell whether they are nouns, pronouns, phrases, or clauses. 1. LoTigfeUow wrote " Excelsior.'* 2. He wrote prose as well as poetry. 8. That he is the children's poet is a cominon opinioiL 4. To gild refined gold is wasteful excess. 5. Reciting poetry aloud trains voice and ear. 6. To spend too much time in studies is sloth. Exercise 19. — In the following sentences^ point mt the subject nouns y pronouns, phrases, and clauses : 1. Long among them, waited a maiden. 2. I stood on the bridge at midnight. 8. Their history is written on tablets of stone. 4. To make others happy should be our chief delight. 6. That the earth is round has been proved. 6. You should view fair Melrose by moonlight. 7. Listening to sweet music brings rest to the weary mind. 8. Whatever hath been written shall remain. 9. Charity suffereth long and is kind, is the law of love. 10. To love poetry is the mark of a refined mind. THE COMPLEMENT OF A VERB If we should construct a variety of sentences by joining subjects to suitable verbs, it would soon appear that verbs differ in two important respects. We diould find that, 1. Some verbs are capable of forming the predicate of a sentence without the aid of any other word. Such are called verbs of complete predication. 86 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE The boy runs. walks. The bird thinks. sings flies, eats. 2. Some verbs are incapable of forming a complete predicate without the aid of one or more additional words. Such are called verbs of incomplete predication. That which is added to the verb to fill out its mean- ing is called its complement^ — a word meaning tliat which Jills or completes. The dog ' caught the fox. bit the boy. The man scared the burglar. is a gentleman. seems sick. looks tired. Verbs of incomplete predication are of two kinds. 1. Verbs whose complement is either an adjective modifying the subject, or a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing as the subject. We are tired. They were late. I feel bad. It was I. Maud and Kate were teachers. He became President. An adjective so used is called the predicate adjective. The noun or pronoun that completes the predicate in the way explained above is called the predicate noun or predicate pronoun. Predicate adjectives, nouns, and pronouns are caUed predicate complements. 2. Verbs whose complement is a noun or a pronoun denoting that which receives the action expresfiMS by the verb. He sawed wood. We caught fish. The sun ligJUs the Bam Tlie siorm undecked a steamer. We assisted him. J^ THE COMPLEMENT OF A VERB 37 A noun or pronoun used in this manner is called the object of the verb. The noun or pronoun taken without any modifiers is called the object noun or the object pronoun. Exercise 20. — In the following sentences the com- plements are printed in italics. Tell of each complement whether it is a predicate complement or an object. 1. The water tastes warm, 2. Be not weary in well-doing. • 3. The milk turned sour, 4. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 5. Kind words butter no parsnips, 6. Consider the lilies, 7. Who became king of the country? 8. The minstrel was infirm, 9. The dog went mad, 10. All men are possible heroes. Some verbs are followed by two objects — a direct object and an indirect object. I gave him the book. She asked me a guest/on. In the foregoing sentences hook and question are direct objects, while him and me are indirect objects. Some objects are incomplete in themselves. They are completed •by what is called the supplement; as, He made the door fast. In this sentence the adjective fast modifies the meaning of the object noun door^ and at the same time it supplements the meaning of the verb by defin- 38 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE ing the action performed on the door. The meaning would be about the same if we said, He fastened the door. The following sentences contain supplements of verbs : He painted the house red. We called him a genius. The hoys shouted themselves hoarse. The complement of a verb may be a phrase or a clause. The waUs were of white marble. The tea/iher said that the earth is round. They explained how the accident happened. Exercise 21. — In the following sentences the com- plements are printed in italics. Tell whether they are objects (direct or indirect) or predicate complements, and distinguish between phrases and clauses, 1. We wondered whether the saltness of the sea tvas not Lots wife in solution, 2. My wish is that you may be happy. 3. Try to correct your own errors, 4. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 5. I know not wTiere His islands lift Their fronded palms in air. 6. Give the man his due. 7. Tell me not in mournful numbers, Life is hut an empty dream. Exercise 22. — In thefolloioing sentences, point ovi 1. The subject and predicate. 2. The predicate rumns and predicate adjectives. ^' ADJECTIVE M0DIFIEB8 89 3. AU objects of verbs. 4. AU clauses used as subject^ predicate complement^ or object. 1. I hear the shouts of the schoolboys. 2. The old orchardVgave forth thB first faint s^mt of the apple blooms.; 3. Two birds sang a sweet duet. 4. Fame is the fragrance of heroic deeds. 6. The soldiei^ lay lifeless. 6. We heard the bleating of the flock. 7. Men will judge us by the company we keep. 8. The laws of Nature are pitiless. 9. God sent His singers upon earth With songs of sadness and of mirth. 10. Washington is the Father of his Country. 11. King Alfred was a sublime character. 12. I wish that I could paint a landscape. 13. Windsor Castle was the residence of Queen Victoria, 14. Hiawatha learned the names of many birds. 16. Straws show which way the wind blows. 16. We believed that the ring was stolen. 17. I remember how my childhood fleeted by. 18. The sailor thought he saw a light. 19. History teaches that the Civil War was a critical event in the existence of this nation. 20. The patriot*s words were, " Give me liberty or give me death.'' ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS We have seen that an adjective joined to a noun to describe or limit its meaning is called a modifier. It has also been explained that precisely the same work done in a sentence by an adjective may be done by two 40 ELEMENTS OF TEE SENTENCE or more words taken together and used as the equiva- lent of an adjective. Honest boys, boys of honest/, boys that are honest. Blue-eyed girl, girl with blue eyes, girl who has blue eyes. The expressions in full-faced type are all adjective modifiers. Adjective modifiers are, therefore, of three kinds with respect to form. 1. A word. Red rosea, pine treesj three days, silk hat, large apples. 2. A phrase. Any modifier that consists of sev- eral words is called a phrase modifier ^ provided it con- tains no word that asserts. The most important phrase modifiers are those that begin with a preposition and end with a noun or a pronoun. These are called prepositional phrases. If used to modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun, they axe prepositional adjective phrases. The girl with golden hair is my sister. She wore a dress of many colors. The boy with his father. In the boat, on the horse, by the road. ^ under the bridge. The grapes ' at the market, for him. along the fence, upon the vine, against the wall. 3. A clause. / know a girl who has blue eyes- ADJECTIVE MODIFIEBS 41 Here the noun girl is modified by who has him eyes. This modifier contains the verb has^ and in this respect differs from the phrase, which contains no asserting word. A modifier in this form is called a dame. (See p. 45.) The house that Jack built stands in a region where rain never falls. The nouns house and region are modified by the adjective clauses that Jack huUt^ and where rain never fallsj respectively. ExEpciSE 23. — Tell whether the adjective modifiers italicized in the following sentences are phrases or clavseSj and tell what words they modify. 1. The place whereon you stand is holy ground. ^ 2. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. '' 3. The part which she liked best was the last story. ^ 4. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. " 5. Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. ' 6. Thy wish was father to that thought. ' 7. Men are but children of a larger growth. 8. Ring out false pride in place and blood. 9. No tears Dim the sweet look that Nature wears. Exercise 24. — Point out all the adjective modifiers j and tell what words they modify. Tell also which are phrases and which clauses. 1. K gentleman of great learning addressed the pupils of the first class. 2. The travelers visited the house in which Shakespeare lived.: 42 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 3. Children that live in the country welcome the birds of early spring. 4. Pennsylvania contains many varieties of forest trees. 5. The book(that I loaned yoii has not been returned. 6. The lady who visited us wore diamonds of remarkable brilliance.' 7. The people ^ that come late^i must take the back seats. 8. The man 'from whom we Duy provisions is a dealer (in fine goods.) 9. The gardener plucked large bunches of luscious purple grapes. 10. The children of the slaves sang the songs of David. 11. He that would thrive must see the white sparrow. 12. I remember the rock where the cataract fell. 13. Cromwell defeated the army of the king. 14. The sweetest music that a mother hears is the prattle of her little children. 16. The moon, that once was round and full, Is now a silver boat. 16. The roses that adorned the garden are now withered and dead. 17. Bright flowers deck the meadow where the cattle graze. 18. I heard from the boughs the sweet notes of a nightin- gale. 19. The factory where the brothers worked was burned. 20. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS If a word is used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective^ or an adverb, we know the word to be an adverb. A phrase used for the same purpose be- comes an adverbial phrase, and a clause so used becomes an adverbial clause. ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS 48 into the yard. The boy walked over the hill. through the woods. The foregoing phrases modify the verb walked^ and are, therefore, adverbial phrases. as the night came. We left the dty when we had finished our work, before the ship sailed. The verb left is modified by the clauses on the right, which are adverbial clauses. A phrase or a clause may itself be modified by an adverb. Nearly across the ocean. Exactly where Columbus landed. Just before the battle. Exercise 25. — Tell whether the adverbial modi- fiers italicized in the following sentences are phrases or clauses^ and tell what words they modify. 1. From some unreclaimed common near by comes tlie first strain of the song sparrow. 2. The cattle look wistfully into the distance. 3. The high-hole calls precisely as I have heard him in the North. . 4. After a pause he repeats his summons. 5. The crows caw above the wood, or walk about the broivn fields. 6. If th£ weather continues warm, a single day will work -wonders. Exercise 26. — Tell which modifiers are adverbs^ which are adverbial phrases, and which are adverbial clauses. Tell also the words modified. 44 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE 1. I will come when I have finished my lesson,) 2. Smooth is the water where the brook is deep. ] 3. He had a fever when he was in Spain. ^ 4. Some must watch ^while some must sleep. ^ 5. We stood upon the ragged rocks When the long day was nearly done. 6. When the shadows of evening fall, the sunbeams fly away 7. Far above the organ's swell rang out a childish voice. I 8. The little birds chirped as they opened their drowsy eyes. , 9. The swan sings before it dies. i 10. The sun rises in the east and sets in the Vest. 11. My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky.^ 12. Make hay while the sun shines. 13. An honest man speaks as he thinks. 14. We walked along the path toward the station. ) 16. (with a quick motion,y the deer lifted his head a little, and turned his ear to the south. \ Exercise 27. — Tell which modifiers are adjective and which are adverbial. Tell also the ivords modified. When the wolf in sheep's clothing heard the bellow (of the ass in the lion's skin, he ran away as fast as his disguise would let him run. When the ox heard the noise, he daahed around the meadow ditch and squashed the frog who had been abusing him. When the crow saw the people with guns, he instantly dropped the cheese out of his mouth and took to wing. When the fox saw the cheese, he immediately made a jump at it and fell into a steel trap, which snapped off his tail. INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS We have learned that there is a class of words called interjections which have no grammatical relation to REVIEW OF PHBASE8 AND CLAUSES 46 the other words of a sentence. The interjection con- stitutes an independent element of the sentence. Independent elements are parts of sentences that have no grammatical relation to other words in the sentence. They may be classified as follows : 1. Interjections. (See p. 26.) 2. A noun used to name the person or thing ad- dressed. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 3. An adverb or a conjunction used to connect a sentence with a preceding sentence. TJie messenger^ however, was not sincere, 4. Phrases used independently. To say the least, his conduct is extraordinary, 5. Clauses used independently. The window is thefi^ame, as ii were, of the picture. REVIEW OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES Definition. — A phrase is a group of words not containing a subject and a predicate, which performs the office of a single part of speech in a sentence. Adjective Phrase. Tlie hook of poems was lost. Adverbial Phrase. We started in the morning. Noun Phrase. To see is tO believe. . Independent Phrase. To Speak plainly, you are mistaken. Definition. — A clause is a member of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate. 46 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE Clauses are divided into independent clauses and subordinate clauses. Independent clauses will be treated under the head of compound sentences, p. 63. Definition. — A subordinate clause is a clause that performs the office of an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. Definition. — An adjectiv^^use is a clause that is used like an adjective to infiKiify a noun or a pronoun; as, Did you see the tree ihai was blasted? Definition. — An adverbial clause is a clause that is used like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbial clauses may express various relations, of wMoh the following are the most important: 1. Place ; as, Wherever he went, he was welcome, 2. Time ; as, While you were speaking, he left the room. 3. Manner ; as, We solve these problems as we kawB t9§M instructed. 4. Degree; as. The house is not so large as we t h § ^gU it was. Such clauses are generally used to modify the meanings cf adjectives and adverbs. Adverbial clauses of degree are often elliptical : There is nothing so kingly as kindness (is kingly). He is working harder than ever (he worked). Great care must be observed in the construction of flea- tences in which than or as is used as a term of compariflOD. We may say, She loves him more than /, She loves him more Ikaii me; but the first means She loves him more than I love Mm; and the second, She loves him more than she loves me. V BEVIEW OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 47 Ab requires a correspondence, term for term, in the two clauses which it serves to unite : He is not so tall as I (am tall), not He is not so taU as me. Where both tJian and as [or so] are necessary to the comparison, neither of them should be omitted. He is wiser hut not so old as his brother, should be, He is wiser than his brother, but not so old. 5. Cause ; as. Because he was ambitious, I slew him. 6. Consequence ; as. He had run so fast, that he was out of breath. A clause of consequence is often introduced by so that. 7. Purpose ; as. He studies that he may become a scholar. 8. Condition; as. If he were within call, I should send him to the city. 9. Concession ; as, Though we are beaten, we have not lost €mrhonor» Definition. — A noun clause is a clause that per- forms the office of a noun. A noun clause may be used : 1. As the subject of a sentence : That he is honest appears evident. Where he is buried lias never been discovered. 2. As the object of a verb or of a preposition : I saw that he was at home. We do not know where he is hiding. He does not know what we are doing. He was earnest in what he undertook. 3. As a predicate complement: Things are not what the/ seem. 4. In apposition: The fact that he was there was soon known. We had a hope that he might come. (See p. 219.) The conjunction that introducing a noun clause is some- times omitted : I know you are to blame = I know that you are to blame. Frequently a noim clause is the real subject of a verb, when it is temporarily represented by the pronoun it; as, It is evident that the Governor should sign the bill. In such cases the clause is in apposition with the pronoun. (See p. 219.) 48 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE In the sentence, I do not doubt but that he will succeed, the but is unnecessary, and its use is improper. In the sentence. The train would have arrived on time, bvi that it met with an accident, the noun clause that it met with an accident is the object of the preposition but, and the clause and preposition together form an adverbial modifier of the verb would Jiave arrived, A short quotation, containing a subject and a predicate, when dependent upon a verb, may generally be regarded as a noun clause ; as. He said, "lam tired. '^ If, however, the quota- tion contains several sentences, each should be analyzed inde- pendently. Exercise 28. — Point out all the noun claicses in the following selections and give the office of each : 1. I dreamed that Greece might still be free. — Byron, 2. I beg leave to say that I have not the least belief in the Noble Savage. 3. That human hearts are good in the main, is a true state- ment. 4. Write it on your heart that every day is the best day in the year. — Emerson, 5. I believe with the Persians that ten measures of talk wer3 sent down from heaven, and that the ladies took nine. 6. Polonius's advice to his son was this : " Beware of eor trance to a quarrel." 7. That imitation is the sincerest flattery, has generally been acknowledged. 8. The important question is, what sciences ought to be taught in our schools ? 9. We heard that it was better to visit the ruins by moon- light. 10. It is a strange thing how little people in general knour about the sky, — Buskin. REVIEW OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES 49 11. What can they see in the longest kingly line in Europe, jave that it runs back to a successful soldier? — Scott. 12. Dr. Watts's statement that birds in their little nests igree, like too many others intended to form the infant mind, B very far from being true. — Lowell. 13. It would seem to have been especially ordered by Provi- ience, that the discovery of the two great divisions of the A^merican hemisphere should fall to the two races best fitted to conquer and colonize them. — Prescott. 14. It has been estimated that the quantity of heat dis- jharged over the Atlantic from the waters of the Gulf Stream, m a winter's day, would be sufficient to raise the column of the itmosphere that rests upon France and the British Isles from ;he freezing point to summer heat. — Maury. Exercise 29. — Give the office of each italicized ohrase and clause in the folloioing sentences : 1. When you are at school in the city you are furnishing jTOur brain with what can he obtained from books. While you %re in the country you should remember that you are in the great school of the senses. Learn to know all the trees by their bark arid 'eaves. Learn also to know all the birds by sight. 2. Yesterday my brother and I drove through the deep woods. As we followed the track of the woodcutters loho are making such zamage among the magnificent pines, we saw a wonderful crim- son bird. Near an open space where the lumber was piled he ilighted for a moment. He was larger than a robin. We both thought his beak was roundish and blunt. If you can, do tell us lis name. Classified according to structure, the elements of a sentence are words, phrases, and clauses. Classified according to office, the elements of a sen- tence are as follows : MAX. 8CH. GRAM. 4 50 ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE («) <6) Im All Sentences Not in All Sentences [I Subject. Predicate. Complements f Predicate. of the verb. { Object. Supplements of the verb. Adjective modifiers. Adverbial modifiers. Independent elements. Connectives. IV. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES • ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS There are two methods by which one might make himself acquainted with anything made up of related parts ; as, for example^ a watch. He might take the watch apart, piece by piece, and while doing so study the details of its structure and the relation of its parts one to another. An opera- tion like this, which begins with the whole and de- scends to the parts that compose the whole, is called analysis. The word means a taking apart or sepa- rating. Or he might begin with the parts, and, after some experiment and study, get an excellent knowledge of the watch by putting its parts properly together. An operation of this kind is called synthesis, which means a putting together. These two methods are the reverse of each other, and both are applicable to the study of the sentence. Both enable us to understand how words are related to one another and to the whole sentence. Definition. — Analysis in grammar is the process of separating a sentence into parts, according to their use. 61 62 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES Definition. — Synthesis in grammar is the pro cess of constructing sentences whose parts are given, their use being known or stated. Synthesis of Sentences We have already seen that, when considered with respect to the use that is made of them, sentences are of three kinds: declarative, when used to make a statement; interrogative^ when used to ask a question; imperative^ when used to express a command or en- treaty. But sentences may be classified with reference to their structure ; that is, with reference to their parts or elements. Sentences have great variety of structure, but they may all be divided into three great classes : the sim- ple sentence, the complex sentence, and the compound sentence. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE The simplest form a sentence can have is that in which a subject noun or pronoun is joined to a suit- able verb, or to a verb and its object, so as to form a statement, a question, or a command. Birds fly. I have read hooka. Dogs hark. Mary likes apples. Such sentences may be lengthened by the addition of modifiers ; but so long as these modifiers are words or phrases^ and not clauses, the sentences are still sim- ple sentences. TB^ SIMPLE SENTENCE 53 7?ie big dog in HHr. Smif it's yard harks at strangers. I have read wit/i much pleasure the hook of poems. Exercise 30. — As in the models lengthen the fol- lowing sentences hy properly adding to them the given moi \ijiers : Sentence Word Modifiers Phrase Modifiers among the stately trees in South America 1. Birds fly many wonderful everywhere along the Amazon River Along the Amazon River, in South America, many wonderful birds fly everywhere among the stately trees, I of the forest \in the loneliest nooks 2. mowers b/oom {*'''' ff" [ sweetest a Qirl sat very silent the little 4. Children skated 6. Sled shot the [new in a pretty crimson chair near the window many ] , , . , I over the clear ice happy \ .^, near the vmaqe swiftly J ^ on the steel runners down the hill with great speed 6. Parents tracked footsteps the frantic the smaU of the lost child ' across an open field into the forest 7. General must be a trusty faithful and dutiful of an army 54 CLASSlFlCATlOir OF SENTENCES 8. Maid gawe flowers a lUde the beautiful {the with downcast eyes to the teacher 9. Spatrow makes home small hrovm English readily 10. Nest swings ^ its (the snow-filled lonely drearily in the trees of our streets upon the leafless tree By means of conjunctions, two or more simple sen- tences may often be contracted, or shortened, into one simple sentence that has, 1. A compound subject. In making such contrac- tions, changes in the forms of some of the words are often necessary. Leah went to the seaside, 1 LeaNs mother went to the seaside, ] "" Leah and her mother went to the seaside. 2. A compound object. The child gathered shells along the seashore, ] __ The child gathered pebbles along the seashore, J "" Tlie child gathered shells and pebbles along the sea,shore. 3. A compound predicate. The sun lights the earth, ] __ The sun warms the earth. J "" The sun lights and warms the earth. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 65 4. Two or more of the foregoing elements compound. Mary gatJiered violets. Mary gathered buttercups. Mary pressed violets. Mary pressed buMercups. LUy gaJthered violets. Lily gathered buttercups, Lily pressed violets. Lily pressed buttercups. Mary and Lily gathered and pressed violets and buttercups. 5. Any other compound elements. The teacher spoTce firmly. 1 _ The teacher spoke pleasantly.) The teacher spoke firmly but pleasantly. Henry was respectful to his teacher. 1 _ Henry was obedient to his parents. J "" Henry was respectful to his teacher and obedient to his parents. A simple sentence that is formed by the synthesis of two or more simple sentences contains such con- junctions as andy hut, as well as, either — or, neither — novy both — andy etc. Night is pleasant as well as day. Life is short but very precious. Both his money and his good name are lost. Neither his father nor his mother was living. Definition. — A simple sentence is a sentence containing one subject and one predicate, either of which may be compound. Note. — Great care should be taken that, when a sentence is written, the proper marks of punctuation are inserted. For the rules governing punctuation, see pages 243-250. Exercise 31. — Contract each set of sentences into one simple sentence : 66 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 1. Fine roses are found in Japan. Fine roses are found in China. Many beautiful lilies are found in Japan. Many beautiful lilies are found in China. 2. The high wind blew down trees. The high, wind carried away fences. The high wind did much damage to property. 3. No sound was heard/ during the long night. The barking of the dogs was heard during the long night 4. The city of Vancouver has only six thousand inhabitants. The city of Vancouver has much traffic. The city of Vancouver has much wealth. 5. The buttercup comes early in the spring. The buttercup stays late in the fall. The daisy comes early in the spring. The daisy stays late in the fall. 6. He spoke of the grass. He spoke of the flowers. He spoke of the trees. He spoke of the singing birds. He spoke of the humming bees. 7. John is a citizen of New York State. I am a citizen of New York State. 8. I care not much for gold. I care not much for land. 9. Her cheek was glowing fresh. Her cheek was glowing fair. Her cheek was glowing with the breath of mom. Her cheek was glowing with the soft sea air. 10. Pride goeth forth on horseback, grand and gay. Pride cometh back on foot. Pride begs its way. THE SIMPLE SENTENCE 67 Analysis of the Simple Sentence Exercise 32. — In accordance with the modelj ana- lyze the following sentences^ and name each part of speech. Observe that in this scheme of analysis one line is drawn under the subject, and two lines under the predicate. Mary and I recited a long dialogue before the school (A simple declarative sentence) Subject Words {Mary \I noun. pronoun. Connective and conjunctioiL Verb recited Object Word dialogue noun. Modifier of Verb before the school adverbial phrase. Modifiers of Ob- {a {long adjective. ject Word adjective. 1. The bright flowers of the morning-glory climbed over the garden wall. 2. The tassels on the maple trees sway softly in the breeze. 3. A tall lady with dark eyes stood before an ancient mirror. 4. The harvest moon looked pleasantly down through the great elm boughs. 5. The wise and strong should seek the welfare of the weak. 6. He put spurs to his horse and galloped away. 7. I have lived by the seashore aoid by the mountains. 8. The billows rolled and plunged upon the sand. 9. The editor read the poem and published it. 10. Paris is built on both sides of the Seine. 68 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 11. Fierce winds often sweep over the desert and fill the air with sand. 12. The stars and the moon watched over the lost babes. 13. A white dove fluttered gently down to the little maid. 14 Cool ferns and soft mosses grow abundantly in the ravine. 15. The thirsty horses and cattle drank freely of the pure water. 16. A pretty child swung slowly in a hammock and sang a little song. 17. Madge arose, rubbed the frosted pane, and stared into the starry night. 18. The lost dog wandered about the streets and watched for its master. 19. A soldier's widow and her only child lived in a little hut near the village. 20. We heard the moaning of the wind and the patter of the rain. 21. The deer shrink northward from the settler's fire. 22. There I lingered all October through In that sweet atmosphere of hazy blue. THE COMPLEX SENTENCE We have seen that a simple sentence is a sentence containing but one subject and one predicate. We can now see that a sentence containing a subordinate clause can not be a simple sentence ; for the subor- dinate clause must contain a subject and a predicate, and the subordinate clause always forms a part of another clause. The birds returned when spring came. In this sentence, The birds returned is called the leading or principal clause; and when spring camCj THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 59 being a mere modifier of the verb returned, is a de- pendent or subordinate clause. The sentence is said to be complex. We visUed the house where Columbus was born. In this complex sentence the principal clause is We visited the house. The subordinate clause lohere Columbus was horn is a modifier of the noun house. Sometimes a subordinate clause forms not a mere modifier but an essential element of another clause. What he said amused the children. I can not say when I shall return. His words were, '^Let us have peace. ^* In the first sentence the subordinate clause is the subject of the principal clause ; in the second, it is the object ; in the third, it is the predicate complement. Of all three sentences we may say that the whole sen- tence is the principal clause. A complex sentence may consist of a principal clause and two or more subordinate clauses. , When I see you again, I vnU teU you what I know about the matter. Definition. — A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. The connectives most commonly used to join an adjective clause to a noun or a pronoun are the pro- nouns who, whose, whom, which, that, and the conjunc- tions where and when. 60 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES _ The connectives most commonly used to join an adverbial clause to a verb or an adjective are the conjunctions wherCy when, while. The conjunction that is often used to introduce noun clauses; also where and when. Exercise 33. — By means of suitable connectives form a complex sentence out of each set of simple sentences^ making necessary contractions : 1. A rolling stone gathers no moss. It is important to^ remember this. 2. The moon is bright. The sun lights its face. 3. The teacher detained her pupils. They had failed in their lessons. They had been disorderly. 4. We sat on the shore at the seaside. The sun sank below the hills. The stars began to shine brightly. 6. A boy became the Lord Mayor of London. The boy was called Dick Whittington. 6. The farmer carefully locked the stable door. His horse had already been stolen. He valued the horse very highly. 7. Harry's mother gave him a beautiful pony. Harry was ten years old. The pony came from Texas: 8. The whale is not really a fish. It is eagerly hunted in the Arctic Ocean. Its body yields oil and whalebone. • THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 61 10, 11 9. Tennyson lived on the Isle of Wight. He wrote the beautiful " Idylls of the King." He wrote them many years ago. We see the lightning. We hear the thunder. We may expect rain. The fleeing troops of Sheridan rallied at Winchester. He had ridden twenty miles to join them. 12. Whittier saw many things in nature. Other people could not see them. He was a poet. George Washington was the first President of the United States. He was inaugurated April 30, 1789. 14. Benjamin Franklin discovered electricity. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod, Benjamin Franklin was a statesman. Benjamin Franklin was a patriot. 13. Analysis of the Complex Sentence Exercise 34. — In accordance with the model, anor lyze the following sentences, and name each element: An observant country boy always knows where the robin builds its nest. Subject Word Verb .... Object . . . Modifiers of Subject Word (A complex declarative sentence) hoy knows where the robin builds its nest (an \ observant [ country . noun noun clause adjective adjective adjective 62 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES Subject Word . . . . . Verb Object Word Modifier of Subject Word Modifier of Object Word Connective (Noun claiuse) robin buUds nest , the . Us . where noun noun adjective pronoun conjunction 1. He who cries about spilled milk mourns unwisely. 2. China has many high mountains whose tops are almost always covered with snow. 3. The ermine lives wherever it can find a snug hiding- place. 4. I dozed and dreamed until the dawn flushed through the waning moonlight. 5. The children sat by the window that opened on the veranda. 6. The child that was most loved died soonest. 7. I stood on the bridge at midnight, As the clocks were striking the hour. 8. Jack and Jill lived in a little house that stood at the foot of the hill. 9. Character carries with it an influence that commands the confidence and respect of mankind. 10. The young moon hung in the purple west, When the sun had gone to rest. 11. I admire a boy who has manliness and courage. 12. We stood upon the ragged rocks, When the long day was nearly done. 13. The bark that is vainly tossed by the tempest may founder in the calm. 14. Winter dies when the violets awake. 15. Jle who laughs at crooked men should walk very straight. 16. New knowledge that we discover for ourselves always gives pleasure, THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 63 17. Koses were blooming in the gardens of the old Southern houses that stood along the bay. 18. The swimmer bravely breasted the waves, which every moment threatened his destruction. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE We have learned that clauses are divided into independent and svbordinate clauses. An independent clause has no dependence upon any other part of the sentence, although it is related to the rest of the sen- tence in meaning. Two or more independent clauses, generally con- nected by a conjunction (see p. 23), may be found in a sentence. Such a sentence is called a compound sentence. Art 18 long and time is fleeting. ' The sun had set, but the moon was fining brightly. EHher he himself committed the crim£, or he knows who the culprits are. A compound sentence must have at least two inde- pendent clauses. Any one of these clauses may con- tain a subordinate clause. When the tide turns the anchor will be raised and the vessel will take its departure. Definition. — A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more independent clauses. Exercise 35. — Form compound sentences of the following sets of simple sentences ^ and tell which clauses are independent and which subordinate: 64 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 1. The rain descended. The floods came. The winds blew. 2. The frost killed the leaves. The rain loosened their hold upon the boughs. They floated silently to the earth. The snow covered them with its white mantle. 3. His fevered brow grew cool again. He breathed a blessing on the rain. 4. It was the month of November. The sun shone warm and bright. 6. The door was softly opened. A little girl peeped in. She quickly ran away again. 6. The night grows dark. Thick drops patter on the pane. 7. The men could not go sailing. A storm had arisen. 8. A soft answer turneth away wrath. Grievous words stir up anger. 9. Master books. Do not let books master you. 10. The cork tree grows to a height of forty feet. Its trunk is from two to three feet in diameter 11. There was a strange look in his eyes. He was very merry. 12. Conceit may puff a man up. It will never prop him up. THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 65 Analysis of the Compoimd Sentence Exercise 36. — In accordance with the modely analyze the following sentences^ and name each ele- ment: The commandeTS arranged their men, and the battle began immediately. (A compound declarative sentence) (Firat independent clause) Subject Wobd . . . . . Verb Object Word Modifier of Subject Word Modifier op Object Word commanders arranged men . . . the . . . . their . • • noun noun adjective pronoun (Second independent clause) battle . . Subject Word .... Verb • began Modifier op Subject Word the . Modifier op Verb . . . Connective aind immediaidy noun adjective adverb conjunction 1. The child nestled in tha comer, and the wind blew the rain away from her. 2. The cattle are quietly feeding in the pastures, and the people are resting in their pleasant homes. 3. The mountain slopes of Switzerland are covered with vineyards, and pleasant villages fill the valleys. 4. Men may come and men may go, But I go on forever. 5. I love my wife, I love my £riend| I love my children three. MAX. SCH. GRAM. — 5 66 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 6. Now the lost has found a home, And a lone hearth shall brighter bum. 7. We enjoyed our walk, although the rain fell fast. 8. Tlie wind was blowing over the moors. But the sun shone bright upon the heather. 9. The storm had cleared the air, and a heavenly calm had followed. 10. A torn jacket is soon mended ; but hard words bruise the heart of a child. 11. No animals are commoner than spiders ; we find them everywhere. 12. Com will grow and cherries will ripen when the south wind begins to blow. 13. Mount thy good steed, and thou and I Will meet him on his way. 14. Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth, And melancholy marked him for her own. 15. Cease to do evil ; learn to do welL V. ETYMOLOGY Etymology treats of the classification, inflection^ and formation of words. For a brief treatment of the formation of words, see pagesi 284^05. According to their use in the sentence, all the words in our language are arranged in eight classes, called parts of speech. These are, 1. The noun. 2. The pronoun. 3. The adjective. 4. The verb. 5. The adverb. 6. The preposition. 7. The conjunction. 8. The interjection. THE NOUN Definition. — A noun is a word used as the name of something: Washington^ Charles; horse, tree ; committee, assembly ; happiness j truth. Classes of Nouns In the sentence. The Hudson is a large river, two wordS; Hudson and river, are names of the same object, and, both being names, they are nouns. But there is a difference in their meaning. The name river is a term that is applied to any body of water answering a certain description. The name Hudson, 67 68 ETYMOLOGY on the other hand, is given to a single river to distin- guish it from all other bodies of water of the same kind. It belongs to one particular river. The names Hudson and river are examples of the two chief classes into which nouns are divided. These classes are : proper nouns and common nouns. Definition. — A proper noun is a name that be- longs only to some particular person, place, or thing ; as, Hudson^ Johuy Tuesday. The word proper is derived from the Latin proprius, mean- ing one^s own. The same proper name is sometimes given to more than one individual of a class. Thus, there are many Johns, Marys, etc. ; several towns are called Washington; there is a Boston in America and a Boston in England. These names are, how- ever, strictly proper nouns, because they were separately given, and are used to distinguish individuals, and not classes. Occasionally, proper nouns are used to denote a class or group ; as, the Coesars, the Adamses, meaning all who belong to certain families. Again, the name of some distinguished man is sometimes applied to another who is supposed to pos- sess similar qualities ; as, a modem Solon, meaning a states- man resembling the Greek lawgiver ; a young Napoleon, a Daniel come to judgment. In such cases the proper noun is said to be used as a common noun. Definition. — A common noun is a noun that is used as the name of a class of things ; as, river , hoy, day, height. There are some nouns that denote groups of THE NOUN 69 objects. We speak, for instance, of a family (mean- ing /a^A^r, mother J brothers y sisters^ etc.), of a herd of cattle, a bevy of young ladies, a crowd of people, a brood of chickens, a fti^/icA of grapes, a row of houses. In all these cases the names denote classes. But the unit of thought — that about which the mind is thinking — is not a single object, but a group of objects. A name that denotes a group is called a coUectiye noun. Definition. — A collectiye noun is a noun that denotes a group or a class made up of objects or of groups of objects ; as, armyy audience^ family. We may think or speak, not of the person John, but of some quality of his body, as, height, weight ; of some quality of his character, as, honesty, folly, goodness ; or of some power of his mind, as, memory, imagination. The name of a quality, feeling, action,, etc., thought of as separated or abstracted from the object to which it belongs, is called an abstract noun. Definition. — An abstract noun is a noun that denotes a class of qualities, feelings, faculties, or actions ; as, whiteness, joy, mernory, punishm,ent. As the adjective is the part of speech that expresses quality, most abstract nouns are formed from ad- jectives,, and denote the qualities when considered apart from the persons or things to which they be- long ; as, good, goodness ; wise, wisdom. TO ETYMOLOGY Many abstract nouns are formed by the addition of the «uffix ness; ^,s, bright, brightness ; righteoits, righteousness ; black, blackness. Some end in th; as, true, truth; wide, width; dead, death. Others end in ty; as, noble, nobility; curious, curiosity; honest, honesty. Others, again, take the termination ce; as, prude^it, prudence ; patient, patience ; reverent, reverence. Abstract nouns denoting actions considered apart from the actors are formed from verbs; as, serve^ service ; choose, choice. Many abstract nouns formed from verbs end in tion; as, protect, protection; move, motion; reflect, reflection. Other examples are relief, advice, pleasure. Abstract nouns are also formed from common nouns ; as, thief, theft ; hero, heroism. Such derivatives generally mean the state or condition de- noted by the nouns from which they are derived. Many such nouns end in ship; b,^, friendship, the condition of being a friend ; leadership, the condition of being a leader. Others, again, end in hood; as, manhood, the condition of being a man ; childhood, the condition of being a child. Exercise 37. — For each of the following class names mention two or more individual names of things belonging to the class : <5ity statesman ship teacher lake hero cat pupil school heroine dog clerk church pianist horse merchant river colonel boat doctor THE NOUN 71 Exercise 38. — Mention two or more words that denote smaller classes of the things denoted by the following names : Example. — flower : rose, lily, daisy, pink, violet. tradesman receptacle animal . word implement plant bird coin mammal vessel fruit measure conveyance biped seed fowl industry liquid tree place Exercise 39. — Analyze the following sentences^ and mention the abstract nouns : Patience is the guardian of faith, the preserver of peace, the cherisher of love, the teacher of humility. Patience governs the flesh, strengthens the spirit, sweetens the temper, stifles anger, extinguishes envy, subdues pride : she bridles the tongue, restrains the hand, tramples upon temptations, endure}* persecutions, consummates martyrdom. Behold her appearance and her attire ! Her countenance is calm and serene as the face of heaven; and no wrinkle of grief or anger is seen in her forehead. Her eyes are as the eyes of doves for meekness, and on her eyebrows sit cheerful- ness and joy. She is clothed in robes of the martyrs, and in her hand she holds a scepter in the form of a cross. She rides not in the whirlwind and stormy tempest of passion, but her throne is the humble and contrite heart, and her kingdom is the kingdom of peace. Inflections of Nouns Nouns may be inflected, or changed in form, to in- dicate difference in number^ gender , and ca^e. , 72 ETYMOLOGY These properties belong to both nouns and pronouns. Definition. — Number is that form or use of a word which denotes one or more than one. Hat, fiats ; fox, foxes ; mouse, mice. There are two numbers in English grammar ; one to express one thing, another to express more than one. Definition. — The singular number of a noun is that form or use of it which denotes one. Definition. — The plural number of a noun is that form or use of it which denotes more than one. Rule. — Most nouns add s or es to the singular to form the plural. Book^ hooks; lion, lions; branch, branches. When the s sound can be added without making an additional syllable, s alone is used ; as, boy, boys; girl, girls. But when the s sound makes an additional syllable, es is used. This is the case where the singular ends in a hissing sound, such as s, z, x, sh, and ch (sounded as in the word church); as, hiss, hisses; adz, adzes; sash, sashes: Custom has made some nouns ending in o add s to the singular to form the plural, and others es. Some of those which add 8 are the following: bravo grotto solo folio canto octavo stiletto nuncio duodecimo portico tyro oratorio embryo quarto virtuoso portfolio THE NOUN 73 Some of those which add €s are the following: buffalo echo mosquito potato calico flamingo motto tomato cargo hero mulatto tornado domino manifesto negro volcano Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form their plurals in the regular way ; as, valley ^ valleys. But when the singular ends in y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed into i and as is added to form the plural; as, duty, duties; sky^ skies; spy^ spies. Most nouns ending in / or /fi^rm their plurals according to the rule, but some change the / into^ and the plural form ends in ves; z,^^ fifes, skiffs, cliffs, strifes; half, halves; shelf, shelves. A few nouns form their plurals in ways once com- mon in our language, but now little used. 1. By adding en; as, Singular OX COW Oxen is the only word in which the plural termination en, once very common, is now preserved in its purity. In the other cases, the words have bee« gradually modified to their present forms. * ' ' • ^. 2. By changing the vowel sound of the word ; as, Plural Singular Plural oxen brother brethren kine child children Singular Plural Singular . Plural man men tooth t6©th foot feet mouse mice \ women goose geese woman 74 ETYMOLOOT A few nouns have the same form for the singular and the plural; as, deer, sheep, swinej cod, trouty mackerely etc. Many nouns have been imported into the English language from foreign languages. When these have passed into common use, they form their plurals in the regular way. Examples are indexes, bandits^ cherubs, formulas^ meTnorandums, focuses, termirmses. But the foreign plurals, indices, banditti, cherubim, formulce, memoranda, foci, termini, are also used. Others, not used so frequently, retain their foreign plurals. Examples are : LATIN Singular Plural Singular Plural larva larvae automaton automata nebula nebulae criterion criteria radius radii phenomenon phenomena dictum dicta analysis analyses datum data thesis theses effluvium effluvia antithesis antitheses erratum errata hypothesis hypotheses medium media basis bases stratum strata crisis crises apex apices ellipi&ts ellipses appendix appendices miasma miasmata index (in algebra ^ Indices vertex vertices vortex vortices FRENCH axis - " axes beau beaux amanuensis amanuenses (Mr.) Messieurs genus genera (Mrs.) Mesdames GREEK THE NOUN 76 Messieurs and Mesdames are French words adopted into English as the plurals of Mr. and Mrs. Some foreign nouns are generally used in the plural j as, aborigines^ literati. Some words, plural in form, are usually treated as singular ; as, meanSy news, amends^ oddsj tidingsy wages^ summons^ gallows. Means J pains, and wa/ges may be used in the plural. News is always singiilar. Summons takes a plural, summonses. Certain nouns ending inicsy derived from Greek adjectives, are always used in the singular ; as, politics, ethics, physics, optics, mathematics. Logic, similarly derived, omits the s. Some nouns, because they ^-re the names of things found only in pairs, or com^isting of more than one part, are used only in th^'plural. Such are : scissors victuals shears tongs entrails measles breeches nuptials matins drawers scales tweezers pincers dregs trousers The nouns riches, almSy and eaves, though often treated as plm-als, are really singular in form. Some nouns have two plurals, which differ in meaning; as. Singular Plural Plural brother brothers (by birth) brethren (of a community) cloth cloths (kinds of cloth) clothes (garments) die dies (for coining) dice (for play) fish .fishes (separate fish) fish (collective) 76 ETYMOLOGY SingiUar Plural Plural genius geniuses (persons of genii (spirits) great ability) index indexes (tables of con- indices (in algebra) tents) pea peas (regarded sepa- pease (collectively) rately) penny pennies (separate coins) pence (sum of money) shot shots (discharges) shot (balls) Some nouns have, in the plural, one form and two meanings; as. Singular Plurals custom customs : (1) habits ; (2) revenue duties, letter letters: (1) of alphabet; (2) literature, number numbers: (1) in counting; (2) in poetry, pain pains : (1) sufferings ; (2) trouble, care, part parts : (1) divisions ; (2) abilities. Proper nouns generally form their plurals regularly* In names of persons, where a descriptive term or a title is prefixed, the name alone adds s for the plural ; as, the two Dr, Smiths. We may say, however, the Miss Browns, or the Misses Brown, The first form seems to imply that they are thought of separately; the second, collectively. We may speak of Misses Jane and Mary Wheeler or Miss Jane and Miss Mary Wheeler, If two or more different men are spoken of, we use Mes- sieurs, usually written in the contracted form, Messrs.; as, Messrs. Jojckson, Dix, and Harmon. In enumerating several ladies by their surnames, we write Mesdames, if they are married ; Misses, if they are single. THE NOUN 77 Abstract nouns have no plural. Occasionally^ however^ these nouns are used, not to signify a quality or an action regarded separately, but to denote particular varieties of quality or particular actions. They then become common nouns, and take the* plural form. Hence we speak of liberties, virtuesy vices, etc. Names of substances or materials, such as mne, sugar, iron, gold, are generally used only in the singular. When used in the plural, as wines, brandies, sugars, etc., the words mean different kinds of wine, brandy, etc. Compound nouns generally add the sign of the plural to the principal word. Three cases may be distinguished : 1. Compounds of a noun and a modifying word or phrase add the sign of the plural to the noun; as, courts-martial, /atherS'in-law, sons-ivrlaw, 2. When the parts have become so nearly allied in meaning that the meaning is incomplete until the whole is known, the sign of the plural is added at the end ; as, handfuls, rose-trees, four-per-cents, major-generals, attorney-generals . 3. A few compounds of two nouns inflect both parts ; as, ^men-servants, knights-templars. A noun modified by a numeral often omits the sign of the plural ; as, two brace of birds, a two-foot rule, sixty head of cattle. Exercise 40. — Give the singular of every plural noun and the plural of every singular noun in the following sentences: 78 ETYMOLOGY 1. Beware of the wolf ia sheep's clothing. 2. The cackling of geese, saved a city. 3. He who killeth a lion when absent feareth a mouse when present. 4. Children are poor men's riches. 5. The actions of men are the index to their thoughts. 6. Difficulties test your capacity. 7. Words once spoken can not be wiped out with a sponge. Gender Living beings are either of the male sex or of the female sex. Things without life have no distinction of sex — are sexless. Definition. — Gender is that form or use of a word which denotes sex. To the three classes into which all things are divided with respect to sex, correspond three genders : Things Words Of male sex, Masculine gender. Of female sex, Feminine gender. Sexless, Neuter gender. Definition. — The masculine gender is that form or use of a word which denotes the male sex. Definition. — The feminine gender is that form or use of a word which denotes the female sex. Definition. — The neuter gender is that form or use of a word which denotes the absence of sex. THE NOUN 79 Father^ son, king, bull, James, are nouns of the masculine gender. Mother, daughter, queen, cow, Jane, are nouns of the feminine gender. Rock, stone, tree, house, Boston, are nouns of the neuter gender. The names of things whose sex is not taken into account, as of very young children and many animals, are sometimes regarded as of the neuter gender. Thus, we speak of The babe audits toys; The fish and lis eggs. Names that maybe applied to persons of either sex. as, parent J friend, servant; and, in the case of animals, names that do not indicate sex, as, bird, sioan, dove, hear, etc., are sometimes spoken of as being of com- mon gender. Things without life are often, particularly in poetry, spoken of as being of the male or female sex. They are then said to be personified, and their names are regarded, if implying strength, power, or violence, as masculine ; if implying gentleness, beauty, or peace, as feminine. The sun is often spoken of as masculine ; the moon, a ship, or a balloon, as feminine. A thousand years their cloudy wings expand Around me, and a dying glory smiles O'er the fair times when many a subject land Looked to the winged Lion's marble piles Where Venice sat in state, throned on her hundred isles. — Lord Byron. 80 BTTMOLOOT The gender of nouns is shown in three ways : 1. By using different words for the masculine and the feminine. The more important examples are : Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine bachelor spinster king queen boy girl lord lady brother sister monk nun drake duck nephew niece earl countess ram ewe father mother sir madam gander goose sloven slut (or slattern) hart roe son daughter horse mare uncle aunt husband wife wizard witch This method of distinguishing gender depends altogether on the meaning of words, and is not, properly speaking, an in- flection. 2. By the use of different endings or suffixes ; as, essj trixy ine, a, en, ster, added to the masculine to form the feminine. (a) Sometimes ess, which is the most common suffix, is added to the masculine without other change. Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine baron baroness Jew Jewess count countess lion lioness deacon deaconess patron patroness heir heiress poet poetess host hostess prophet prophetess (b) Sometimes the final syllable or letter of the masculine form is merged in the feminine termination ; as. THE NOUN Mtuetdine Feminine Masculine Feminine abbot abbess instructor instructress actor actress marquis marchioness benefactor benefactress master mistress duke duchess murdei*er murderess emperor empress protector protectress enchanter enchantress tiger tigress governor governess traitor traitress 81 (c) The feminipe suffix trix is found in a few nouns bor- rowed from the Latin language: Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine adjutor administrator director adjutrix administratrix directrix executor heritor testator executrix heritrix testatrix (d) The suffixes ine and ina are frequently found in proper names of women; as, Josephine, Alexandrina, Ine is seen also in heroine from hero, (e) The suffix a is found in a few words borrowed from the languages of southern Europe; as Do7ina, from Don; SuUana, from Sultan; Infanta, from Infante; Signora, from Signor. (/) The suffixes en and ster come down to us from old English, and are now found unchanged in only two words; vixen and spinster. (g) A few words, such as songstress and seamstress, show the use of both the old suffix ster and the modern termination ess. The suffix er forms widower, from widow. 3. By putting before a noun of the common gender a word whose gender we know ; as, he-goat, she-goat ; marirservant, maid-servant MAX. SCU. ORAM. — 6 82 ETYMOLOGY Among good writers of the present day the tendency is to oniit distinctively feminine inflections whenever it is not important to mark distinction of sex. Thus, we speak of a lady as the author ^ not the authoress, of a book ; as a singer^ not a songstress ; as a lecturer] not a lecturess. Though a lady is called a chairman^ not a chairiooman, of a meeting, she is addressed as " Madam Chairman." Case A noim may serve several uses or purposes in a sentence. It may be used as : 1. The principal word in the subject. Truth crushed to earth shall rise again. 2. The predicate complement. Men at some time are masters of their fateSm 3. A term of address. Wellf Brutus, thou art noble. Rome, thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods. 4. An object complement. He could foretell the weather at a word, He knew the haunt of every beast and bird. 5. An independent word. For once, upon a raiv and gusty day, The troubled Tiber chafing with her shores^ Coesar said to me, etc. — Shakespeare. THE NOUN 88 6. The object of a preposition. The vine still clings to the molderiiig wall^ But at every gust the dead leaves faU^ And the day is dark and dreary. — LongfeUow. 7. The subject of an infinitive. (See p. 151.) He besought Hercules to help him. 8. The equivalent of an adverbial phrase. The hook is worth jive dollars. The fish iveighed three pounds. 9. A modifier indicating possession; as, my father^s house. 10. A modifier explaining or describing another noun ; as, J^aiily the apostle ; Plato, the philoso- pher. These uses, because they indicate the relation or case in which a noun stands to other words of a sen- tence are called cases. Definition. — The case of a noun is that form or use of a noun which denotes its relation to other words in a sentence. Some centuries ago the English language had in- flections to indicate five different cases. Now we have only three cases, the nominative, possessive, and objective; and only one of these, the possessive, is marked by inflection. There is now no difference of form for the nominative and objective cases. 84 ETYMOLOGY Definition. — The nominatiye case of a noun is the use of the noun in the relation of subject of a verb, of predicate complement, of address, or of an independent element. Pres/dent Uneoln was assassinated. Edison is an inwenfor. James, where Jiave you been? The moon having riseriy we set out. When used to name the person or thing addressed, the noun is in the nominatiye by address ; as, John^ speak. When used independently, it is in the nominatiye absolute; as, The war heing over, the army was disbanded. Definition. — The possessiye case of a noun is that form of the noim which denotes the relation of owner- ship. King Arthur's sword. TJie soldiers* home. A noun in the possessive case always modifies another noun, expressed or understood. The relation between the two nouns is sometimes one of pure ownership ; as, John's umbrella. More frequently, however, the noun in the possessive case is used merely to limit or define the other noun, and does not necessarily indicate ownership; as, Men^s passions. In the singular number, the possessive case is formed by adding to the nominative form the letter s preceded by an apostrophe (') ; as John, John's ; man^ mavHs. The apostrophe alone is added when too many hissing sounds would come together; as, Moses^ law, for conscience^ sake. It is correct, however, to say, Burns' s poems, Moses's law; and, if there is doubt, the rule should be followed. THE NOUN 85 Words of more tKan two syllables often take the apostrophe alone ; as, Demosthenes orations; Euripides^ plays. In the plural, when the noun ends in s, the apos- trophe alone is added ; as, ladies^ gloves ; fooces' holes ; birds* eggs. When a noun in the plural does not end in s, the apostrophe and s are used ; merCs hats ; womerCs borir nets. The Anglo-Saxon inflection to mark the possessive (or geni- tive) case was es. The apostrophe marks the fact that the vowel has been dropped. The unchanged Anglo-Saxon inflec- tion may still be seen in Wednesday, which is a contraction from Wodnes-doeg. In compoimd nouns the sign of the possessive is added to the last word only ; as, the heir-at-laio's right. The same rule is followed when there are two or more separate names, if joint possession is indicated ; as, Robertson^ Smithy & Co.'s office ; William, James, and Mary^s uncle. But where the possession is several, the sign of the posses- sive must be repeated with each noun ; as, OranVs and Lee^s forces met in the Wilderness, The poem is neither BryanVs nor WTiittier^s. Constructions such as His brother's death, the Duke of Clarence (Sir Thomas More), are not now used. We should say, The death of his brother, the Duke of Clarence, It is, however, allowable to say, "I bought the book at Thompson the bookseller's '' ; or, " I bought the book at Thomp- son's, the bookseller's "; or, " I bought the book at Thompson's, the bookseller." The peculiar idiom. This is a play of Shakespeare's, is ex- plained as signifying a play of Shakespeare's plays ; that is, one 86 ETYMOLOGY of the plays written by Shakespeare. Those who regard this explanation as correct, distinguish a bust of Cicero^ that is, a bust representing Cicero, from a bust of Cicero^s, meaning one of the busts in the possession of Cicero. The possessive inflection is rarely used except with nouns denoting persons, animals, and personified objects: Johnson's store, the dog's head, the moorCs face ; but it is not usual to say, the hook's leaves, or the house's roof: better, tJie leaves of the book, the roof of the house. Definition. — The objective case of a noun is the use of the noun as object of a verb or of a preposition, as the subject of an infinitive (see p. 151), or as the equivalent of an adverbial phrase. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. The teacher advised the boy to return. A train, five cars long, passed the depot. The nouns, knell and day, are the objects respectively of the verb tolls and of the preposition of. Boy is the subject of the infinitive to return (see p. 151), and the whole phrase, the boy to return, is the object of the verb advised. Cars is equivalent to an adverbial phrase, by five cars, modifying the adjective long. Cars may be called an adverbial objective. When, as in the following sentences, a noun ex- plains the meaning of another noun, the explaining noun is said to be in the same case by apposition as the noun explained. Arnold, the traitor, betrayed his country. I saw Stevenson, the novelist. THE NOUN 87 When nouns are arranged so as to show in an orderly way the forms that denote number and case, we have : The Declension op Nouns Singular Plural man men man's men's man men Singular Plural Nominative: girl girls Possessive: girl's girls' Objective: girl girls Nominative: lady ladies sheep sheep Possessive: lady's ladies' sheep's sheep's Objective: lady ladies sheep sheep Exercise 41. — Give the case and the office of each noun in the folloiving sentences : 1. Pride thrust Nebuchadnezzar out of men's society, Saul out of his kingdom, Adam out of Paradise, Haman out of court, Lucifer out of heaven. 2. My son, keep thy father's commandment, and forsake not the law of thy mother : bind them continually upon thine heart, and tie them about thy neck. 3. Day set on Norham's castled steep Arid Tweed's fair river broad and deep^ And Cheviot's mountains lone ; The battle towers, the donjon keep. The Ipophole grates where captives weep, The flanking walls that round it sweep, In yellow luster shone. — Scott 4. Good name, in man or woman, dear my lord, Is the immediate jewel of their souls. Who steals my purse, steals trash; 'tis something, nothing ; 88 ETTMOLOOT 'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands ; But he that filches from me my good name, Eobs me of that which not enriches him, And makes me poor indeed. — Shakespeare, 5. We live in deeds, not years ; in thoughts, not breaths ; In feelings, not in figures on a dial. — Bailey, 6. If a man empties his purse into his head, no one can take it away from him. An investment in knowledge always pays the best interest. — Benjamin Franklin. Person Definition. — Person is the use of a noun that indicates whether it denotes the person speaking^ the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about. A noun denoting the person thiat speaks is said to be in the first person ; as, J, Benjamin Harrison, do issue this my proclamation. A noun denoting the person spoken to is said to be in the second person ; as, Youy John, are wrong. A noun denoting the person or thing spoken about is said to be in the third person ; as Shakespeare wrote plays, Washington was a surveyor. We can tell the person of a noun only by noticing the context of the sentence in which it is used. THE NOUN 89 Substitutes tor Nouns Words, phrases, and clauses, not properly nouns, are frequently used as nouns. These substitutes may be : 1. Pronouns. (See p. 91 and following.) 2. Any other part of speech. In history we should learn the when, the why, and tlie how. The word receive is frequently misspelled. Adjectives may be used to denote concrete things and hence become common nouns; as, the deep, meaning the ocean ; thi; poor, meaning poor people ; the English, meaning the English 2?eople. Or they may have the force of abstract nouns ; as when we speak of the true, or the beautiful, for truth and beauty. 3. Noun Phrases. To see is to believe. To be united is to be strong. 4. Noun Clauses. That you have wronged me, doth appear in this, — Shakespeare, Many facts prove that the world is round. Parsing the Noun To parse a noun is to state the following facts regarding it : T. The class to which it belongs. II. Its number and gender. III. Its case. IV. The reason for its case ; telling either, 90 ETYMOLOGY 1. CfwJiat verb it is the suhjecty or predicate com- plement ; 2. Of what verb or preposition it is the object ; 3. If in the possessive^ what noun it modifies ; 4. If in apposition, what noun it explains ; 5. Or that it is nominative by address, or nomir native absolute. Exercise 42. — In accordance with the modely anor lyze the following sentences, and parse each noun: The princess is her father^s heir. (A simple declarative sentence.) common noun, singular, femi- nine, nominative. common noun, singular, femi- nine, nominative. Subject Word princess Verb is Predicate Com- heir plement Modifier of Sub- the ject Word Modifier of (her [father^s Complement common noun, singular, mas> culine, possessive. 1. The golden ripple on the wall came again. ) 2. The word fail ia not f oimd in the lexicon of youth. 3. f Absence of occupation is not rest. 4. ' No noble human thought can ever come to naught.) 5. Books give to all who will faithfully use them the_ so- ciety, the spiritual presence, of the best and greatest of our race. '^ — ~ 6. The doorstep to the temple of wisdom is a knowledge of our own ignorance. THE PRONOUN 91 7. The unweaixed sun from day to day Doth his Creator's power display, And publishes to every land The work of an Almighty hand. — Addison. 8. Do not read too much at a time, stop when you are tiredf and always review what you haye read. THE PRONOUN Definition. — A pronoun is a word that denotes persons or things without naming them. The noun and the pronoun agree in that their grammatical functions in a sentence are the same. They difiEer in that a noun is a name, whereas a pronoun is a substitute for a name. Pronoims have the same properties as nouns, — per- son^ numher^ gender^ and case. The noun to which a pronoun refers, or for which it stands, is called its antecedent. The word antecedent means going before. Generally the noun to which the pronoun refers, or for which it stands, pre- cedes the pronoun. It frequently happens, however, that the noun to which the pronoun refers follows the pronoun, or is not mentioned at all, as when we say of a person who has just left, He is gone. But in all cases the idea of the person or thing referred to is supposed to be present in the mind of the speaker, and to be easily understood by the hearer. CLASSES AND INFLECTIONS Pronouns may be divided into four classes : I. Pebsonal. J, thou, you, we, they, etc. II. Interrogative, who f which f what f 92 ETYMOLOGY V III. Relative. wAo, whichy thcUf what. . /T-rr A f DEMONSTRATIVE. tkiSy that thesc, those. ' IV. Adjective {^ \ ^ I Indefinite, one, some, each, etc. Personal Pronouns The word person once meant an actor's part in a play. As in plays, so in conversation, there are the speaker, the listener, and the person or thing talked about. Pronouns that by their form enable us- to distinguish the person or thing in each of these three relations are called personal pronouns. Definition. — A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows by its form whether it denotes the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken about ; as /, you^ he. Personal pronouns are divided into two classes : V 1. Simple personal pronouns ; as, /, you, we. V 2. Compound personal pronouns; as, myself, our- selves, themselves. Personal pronouns have different forms for the three persons. (See p. 88.) The pronouns of the first person are /, with its plural ive ; and m^yself, ourselves. The pronouns of the second person are thou, with its plural ye or you ; and thy self yourself your- selves. The pronouns of the third person are he, she, and it, with their plural they ; and himself herself itsdf and themselves. Singular Plural I we my, mine our, ours me lis THE PRONOUN 93 The simple personal pronoun of the first person is inflected for number and case. Because the sex of the person speaking is always supposed to be known, it is not inflected for gender. Nominative : Possessive : Objective : / is always written as a capital letter. In the expression methinks, me is the remnant of an old Anglo-Saxon inflection called the dative case, and thinks comes from .an old verb, thinken, to seem. It means, " It seems to me." Our verb think comes from a verb thenken, to think. Meihinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation. — Milton, Properly speaking, the pronoun / can not have a plural. The plural we denotes the speaker and one or more for whom he speaks. It may mean, for instance, you and J, my father and /, my school-fellows and /. When persons other than the person spiBaking are mentioned, it is proper to put the pronoun denoting the speaker last ; as, John and I. The plural we is used in the following special cases : ^ 1. In the editorials of newspapers ; as, We are of opinion^ etc. It seems to usy etc. 2. In speaking for humanity generally : Strong purposes our minds possess, Our Marts affections fill, We toil and eam, we seek and learn, \ And thou descendest still. ^ . — Arthur Hugh Glough. Sovereigns generally use the plural form in issuing their proclamations ; as, We, the Emperor of Germany, etc. 94 ETYMOLOGY The simple personal pronoun of the second person is inflected for number and case. Because the sex of the person addressed is supposed to be known by the speaker, it is not inflected for gender. Singular Plural NOMINATI^^ : Possessive : Objective : thou thy, thine thee ye, you your, yours ye, you . The plural forms you, your, yours, are now used for purposes of address, both in the singular and in the plural, except by members of the Society of Friends, who still address one another in the singular by thoti, thy, thine, and thee. Tliou was formerly used in address as a term of endearment ; it was also used to denote familiarity, and so came to imply contempt. If thou thouest him some thrice, it shall not he amiss, — Shakespeare, Except by members of the Society of Friends, thou is now used only in the following cases : 1. In the worship of the Almighty : Hallowed he thy name. 2. In poetry : Hail to thee, hlithe spirit — Bird thou never wert — ITiat from heaven or near it Pourest thy full heart In profuse fitrains of unpremeditated art, — Shelley, Ye is now used only in appeals and exclamations found in poetry and in elevated prose ; as. Ye crags and peaks ! Nor you, ye proud, impute to these the fault, — Oray, THE PRONOUN 96 The pronoun of the third person is inflected in the singular for number, case, and gender ; in the plural, for number and case, while gender is learned from the context : Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter All Genders Nominative: he she it they Possessive: his her its their Objective : him her it them He and she are used for personified objects. (See p. 79.) It stands for the name of a human being or an animal when sex is not. thought of, as well as for a thing without life. Light the lamp and bring it here. Tell the child that it must stop crying. Sometimes the reference is quite indefinite, as in the expres- sions : It rains. How is it with me f We roughed it on our journey. We must suppose that there is something in the mind of the speaker not fully expressed. Its is a modem form. The old neuter possessive was hiSy which was in constant use up to the seventeenth century, and is to be found in King James's translation of the Bible : ITiou shalt make a candlestick of pure gold: . . . his shaft and his branches, his bowls, his knops, and his flowers shall be of the same. — Ex. xxv. 31. In such a time as this it is not meet That every nice offense should bear his comment. — Shakespeare. By Bhakespeare the uninflected form it is sometimes used for the possessive : Oo to it grandam, child . . • and it grandam wiU give it a plum^ — Shakespeare. 96 ETYMOLOGY The forms my, thy^ her, his, its, ouVy your, their, are used to modify nouns directly: Your favlt is great Our money is invested. Thei/r land is weU cultivated. The forms mine, thine, ours, yours, theirs, and some- tunes his and hers, though possessive in form, have come to be used only in the nominative and objective cases. They are in reality substitutes for a noun and its possessive modifier: My hat is new, yours (your hat) is old. The fault is yours. The money is ours. The land is theirs. I have his, he has mine. Theirs have increased, ours have decreased. The parsing of the pronouns given in the first example should be as follows : My is a personal pronoun, in the Jirst person, sinyvlar number, possessive case. It modifies the noun hat Tours is a personal pronoun, second person, plural number, pos- sessive in form, but used in the nominative ca^ as subject of the verb is. It is a substitute for the words your ha>t. In the idiomatic expression, this is a book of mine, of mine is an adjective phrase modifying book. Mine may be parsed as a personal pronoun, possessive in form, governed in the objective case by of. The idiom probably arose from the mixture of two constructions — a pure possessive and an adjective phrase. (See p. 85.) Poets and orators occasionally use mine and thine instead of my and thy before a word beginning with a vowel, lo heighten the effect. Thine anguish will not let thee sleep, — Tennyson. Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord. At one time this was the prevalent usage : Shall I not take mine ease in mine inn f — Shakespeare \ THE PRONOUN 97 ' The compound personal pronouns are : Singular Plural myself ourselves thyself yourselves himself themselves herself itself These forms are used only in the nominative and objective cases ; never in the possessive. The uses of the compound personal pronouns are two : 1, Reflexive ; 2, Emphatic. The reflexive use, iudicating that the actor becomes the ob- ject of his own action, is seen in the following: I know myself now. — Shakespeare, Love ihyself last, — Idem, He that wrongs his friend wrongs himself more, — Tennyson, Vaulting ambition which overleaps itself. — Shakespeare. The emphatic use is seen in such expressions as, I myself saw the deed, Tennyson employs myself m both ways in the following line, And I myself sometimes despise myself. Exercise 43. — FUl the blanks with personal pro- nouns, mention the case of each, and give a reason for its vse : ^ 1. James, Henry, and will do the work. \/2. The work was done by James, Henry, and . 3. Was it Frank who did it ? No, it was not ^' ■ . y/^4. Was it Mary ? No, it was not -^-^. 5. I did not know that it was / ' ^' MAX. SCH. GRAM. — 7 98 6. .7. .8. 9. ETYMOLOGY The boy denied that it was who did the wrong. Between you and -iir^, the aflPair was not a success. -^ — that honor me, I will honor. The professor reproved William and ^^ for care> lessness. 10. William and wejre sorry to have offended. >^1. Jane is taller than Parsinq A personal pronoun is parsed as a noun is parsed, with the addition of the mention of its person. Exercise 44. — In accordance with the model, ana- lyze the following sentences, name each element, and parse the nouns and pronouns : Her eyes were fair, and very fair; — Her beauty made me glad. (A compound declarative sentence) (First independent clause) Subject Word Verb eyes were common noun, plu native. Tal, neuter, nomi- Predicate Com- (fair adjective. plement [fair adjective. COXNECTIVE and conjunction. Modifier of Sub- her simple personal pronoun, third, ject Word singular, feminine, possessive. Modifier of very adverb. Predicate Com- plement THE PRONOUN 9V> (Second independent clause) Subject Word beauty common noun, singular, neuter, nominat .ve. Verb made Object Word me simple personal pronoun, first, sin- gular, masculine, objective. Supplement , glad adjective. Modifier of Sub- her simple personal pronoun, third, sin- ject Word gular, feminine, possessive. "Two of us in the churchyard lie, My sister and my brother; And in the churchyard cottage, I Dwell near them with my mother.^ "You run about, my little maid; Your limbs they are alive ; K two are in the churchyard laid, Then ye are only five." " The first that died was sister Jane ; In bed she moaning ^ lay. Till God released her from her pain ; And then she went away. " And when the ground was white with snow, And I could run and slide, ,My brother John was forced to go,* And he lies by her side." Interrogative Pronouns Definition. — An interrogative pronoun is a pro- noun used in asking questions. 1 moaning is a participle. (See p. 165.) ^to goSa an infinitive. (See p. 150.) O^i^t osi^aa 100 ETYMOLOGY { The interrogative pronouns are whx)^ 'which, and ; what In older English whether frequently occurs as I an interrogative proniun. Who hath believed our report^ and to whom is the arm of the \ Lord revealed f — Bible, i What is sweeter than honey? What is stronger than a lUmf — Bible. Which of you by taking thought can add one cubit to his stature f — Bible. Who refers only to human beings and to personi- fied objects, and is thus declined : Singular Plural Nominative: • who who Possessive : whose whose Objective : whom whom Who and whom are always, and whose occasionally, used alone. Whose, like the possessive cases of per- sonal pronouns, is generally joined to a noun as a modifier; Who told you so? From whom did you get the book? Whose umbrella did he take? TJiis is mine, whose is that? Between loho and which there is a distinction in meaning. Who asks a question in a general way; as, Who calls so loudf meaning who of all persons. Which inquires for a particular individual from a group or class. Which (of the two) is the natural man And which the spirit? Who deciphers them? — Shakespeare. TBE I PRONOUN 101 Which is used in the nominative and objective cases, either alone or as a modifier of a noun, for either number and for any gender. Which was it? Which of you told mef Which will you have? Which book did he choose f Which numbers did she select f What may be used either alone or joined to a noun. When used alone, it is singular and neuter ; when used with a noun, the noun may be of any gender and either number. What does it matter f What do you want ? Wherefore rejoice f What conquest brings he home ? What tributaries follow him to Rome f — Shakespeare. What king, going to war against another king, sitteih not down first and consuUeth ? — Bible. What is often used to introduce an exclamation; as, What dignity, what beauty in this change From mild to angry, and from sad to gay ! — Wordsworth. What is sometimes used as an interjection to ex- press siuprise ; as. Eh! how! What! Captain, did you tvrite the letter then? — Sheridan. Whether is equivalent to which of two? It is now generally used as an adverb. In older English it occurs frequently as an interrogative pronoun; as, Whether of them twain did the vnU of his father 9 — Bible. \ 102 ETYUOk OQT Exercise 45. — F^l the blanks in the following sen- tences with interrogative pronouns {who or wham), being careful to use the proper case forms: 1. do you suppose I met to-day ? 2. do you think he meant ? 3. do you believe did the wrong ? 4. I asked was speaking. 5.1 :- are you addressing ? e.'i'L — is he talking to? 7. 'pV- is this meant for? 8. }^^Li:!LL are you expecting to elect? 9. He asked ^l^ it was. 10. He asked ^^^i^ I was waiting for. Relative Pronouns Definition. — A relative pronoun is a pronoun that serves to connect the clause of which it is a part with the antecedent of the pronoun; as, Hie man who is speaking is the judge. In the foregoing example who is a relative pro- noun connecting the clause who is speaking — an adjective modifier — with the noun man, which is the antecedent of who. The distinguishing mark of a relative pronoun is that it can not form the subject or the object of a simple sentence, but is employed to introduce a clause. The relative pronouns are who, which, that, what, with the compound forms whoso, whoever, whosoever, lohichever, tvhichsoever, whatever, whatsoever. As and but are occasionally found as relative pronouns. THE PRONOUN l03 Whoy lohich, and what were originally interrogative pronouns. Then they came to be used indefinitely in the sense of some person or thing, especially after the conjunctions if and as ; as in the expression, As who should say, etc., meaning, As if some one should say. Finally, they came to be used as relatives. That, origi- nally a demonstrative pronoun, became a relative be- fore any of the others. I Who and which are declined as follows : lingular and Plural Singular and Plural NOMINATFVB : who which Possessive : whose whose Objective : whom which i That and what are not inflected to indicate case. Who is now used only for persons and in personi- fication ; which, for animals, plants, and things with- out life. That may be used for persons, animals, plants, and things without life. Tke letter being folded was delivered to tJie squire, and by him delivered to the messenger, who waited without. --Sir Walter Scott There is a vast number of absurd and mischievous fallacies, which pa^ss readily in the world for sense and virtue, while in truth they tend only to fortify error and encourage cnme. — Sydney Smith- Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the un- godly, — Bible, Wake, wake ! all ye that sleep. — Longfellow, The songs and fables that are corns from father to son. — Addison. 104 ETYMOLOGY That is to be preferred to who and which in the following cases : 1. When the antecedent embraces both persons and things : ITie soldiers and cannon that I saw. 2. As a general rule, who or which is to be used when its clause introduces a new fact about the ante- cedent; that is to be preferred when the clause limits or defines the antecedent. A convenient test to decide whether it is better to use ioho or ivhick, or that, is suggested by Dr. Abbott: "When using the relative pronoun, use who and which when the meaning is and h£, it, etc., for he, it, etc. In other cases use tJiat, if euphony allows." / heard this from the inspector, who (and he) heard it from the guard that traveled with the train. Fetch me all the books that lie on the the table, and also the pamphlets, which {and those) you will find on the floor. This rule, it must be admitted, is not generally observed, even by the best modern authors. It was followed, however, up to the beginning of the present century ; and there is a tendency among writers of the present day to return to it be- cause of its clearness and convenience. It covers the specific rules given by most grammarians to use that after an adjective in the superlative degree, etc. Dr. Abbott notes the following exceptions : 1. When the antecedent is already restricted by some ex- pression, e.g, by a possessive case, modern English uses who instead of tluU in a restrictive clause; as, His friends from the city, whom he was eocpecting^ caUed at his office. THE PRONOUN 105 2. If the relative is separated from its verb and from its antecedent, who or which is preferable to that. There are many persons who^ thotigh unscrup^doibs, are commonly good-tempered, and who, if not strongly incited by self-interest, are ready, for the most part, to think of the interest of their neighbor. 3. If the antecedent is modified by that, the relative must not be thxU, Addison ridicules such language as, Thai remark that I made yesterday is not that that I said that I regretted that I had made, 4. That, as a relative, can not be preceded by a preposition, and hence it throws the preposition to the end of the clause. That is the rule that I adhere to is perfectly correct ; but when the preposition has more than one syllable, and may be mis- taken for an adverb, the construction sounds harsh. It is better to say. This is the mark beyond which I jumped, than Xm^i^ (^^, 'KJl^cit'rk that I jumped beyond. 5. After indefinite pronouns modern English prefers who. There are many {others, several, those) who can testify, etc. \ Whose is used for persons, for lower animals, and j even for things without life, and always to modify the meaning of a noun. On a rock, whose haughty brow. Frowns o'er old Conway's foaming tide. — Gfray. How can we praise the verse whose music flows With solemn cadence and majestic close, Pare as the dew that filters through the rose 9 — O.W. Holmes. It is more common, however, especially in prose, to substi- tute of which for whose when the antecedent denotes some- thing without life. 104 ETYMOLOGY That is to be preferred to who and which in the following cases : 1. When the antecedent embraces both persons and things : The soldiers and cannon that I saw. 2. As a general rule, who or which is to be used when its clause introduces a new fact about the ante- cedent; that is to be preferred when the clause limits or defines the antecedent. A convenient test to decide whether it is better to use ioko or which, or that, is suggested by Dr. Abbott; "When using the relative pronoun, use who and which when the meaning is and he, it, etc., for he, it, etc. In other cases use that, if euphony- allows." / heard this from the inspector, who (and he) heard it from the guard that traveled with the train. Fetch me all the books that lie on the the table, and also the pamphlets, which (and those) you will find on the floor. This rule, it must be admitted, is not generally observed, even by the best modern authors. It was followed, however, up to the beginning of the present century ; and there is a tendency among writers of the present day to return to it be- cause of its clearness and convenience. It covers the specific rules given by most grammarians to use tha^ after an adjective in the superlative degree, etc. Dr. Abbott notes the following exceptions : 1. When the antecedent is already restricted by some ex- pression, e.g. by a possessive case, modern English uses who instead of that in a restrictive clause; as. His friends from the city, whom he was expecting^ called at his office. THE PRONOUN 105 2. If the relative is separated from its verb and from its antecedent, who or which is preferable to that. There are many persons who, though unscrup^do'os, dre commonly good-tempered^ and who^ if not strongly incited by self-interest , are ready, for the most part, to think of the interest of their neighbor. ' 3. If the antecedent is modified by that, the relative must not be that. Addison ridicules such language as, That remark that I made yesterday is not that that I said that I regretted that I had made, 4. That, as a relative, can not be preceded by a preposition, and hence it throws the preposition to the end of the clause. That is the rule that I adhere to is perfectly correct ; but when the preposition has more than one syllable, and may be mis- taken for an adverb, the construction sounds harsh. It is better to say, This is the mark beyond which I jumped, than y(i(X i^ (^6 ipiiark that I jumped beyond. 5. After indefinite pronouns modern English prefers who. There are many {others, several, those) who can testify, etc. J Whose is used for persons, for lower animals, and even for things without life, and always to modify 1 the meaning of a noun. On a rock, whose haughty brow. Frowns o^er old Conway's foaming tide. — Oray. How can we praise the verse whose music flows With solemn cadence and majestic close, Pure as the dew that filters through the rose f — 0. W. Holmes. It is more common, however, especially in prose, to substi- tute of which for whose when the antecedent denotes some- thing without life. ^106 ETYMOLOGY \ Society . . . has great reason to rejoice when a class, of wTujich the influence is moral and intettectual, rises to ascendency, - ^ — Macavlay, \ Which is now used only for the lower animals, <' plants, and things without life. Formerly it was I used tor persons, as in the Lord's Prayer, Our Father which art in Heaven. Which is frequently used as an adjective ; as, Which things are an allegory. — Bible. In this case, it refers back to a number of incidents already related, and modifies the word things. Occasionally, the antecedent is repeated for the sake of clearness. He offered no defense for the ridicutous fable of the pigeon; which pigeon [not which fable], on the contrary , he represented, etc. — De Quincey, In Shakespeare, the which, used to distinguish between two or more possible antecedents, is common. The better part of valor is discretion; in the which better part I have saved my life. 1 What is always neuter, and is used only in the J nominative and objective cases. Its antecedent is never expressed. In _meaning it is_e quivalent to that ivhich orjhe thing ivhich. Nominative Case: What is one man's meat is another mxin's poison. Objective Case : What I have written I have written. The student must consider carefully in determining the case of what. In the first sentence, the clause What is one man's meat is the subject of the second is, and Wliat is the subject of THE PRONOUN 107 the first is. In the second sentence, What I have written is a noun clause and the object of the second have written. What is the object of the first have written. In older English we find the antecedent expressed, as in the sentence. Thai what we have we prize m>t to the worth. — Shakespeare. In poetry and elevated prose, what is occasionally found as an adjective : Whai time the splendor of the setting sun Lay beautiful 071 Snowdon^s sovereign brow. — Wordsworth. As is used as a relative pronoun after svrch and same : Nature ever faithful is To such as trust her faithfulness. Tears, such as angels weep, burst forth, — MiUon. Occasionally but is found as a relative pronoun. There is not a wife in the west country, But has heard of the well of St Keyne. — Southey. The compounds whoever , whichever , ivhatever; whoso ^ whosoever, whichsoever^ whatsoever^ are generally used, like ivhaty without an antecedent. Whosoever is the only one declined : Nominative : whosoever. Possessive : whosesoever. Objective: whomsoever. The forms with so are rarely used in modem English. These compounds all have an indefinite or general meaning. Whoso eats thereof forthwith attains wisdom. — Milton. {Whoso = every one who.) 108 ETYMOLOGY I think myself beholden whoever shows me my mistakes. — Locke. {Whoever = no matter who.) The relative is sometimes omitted when it is the object of a verb ; as, ITie book I purchased = The book that I purchased. Had I but served my Ood with half the zeal J served my king, he would not in mine age Have left me naked to mine enemies. — Shakespeare. Here we must supply with which after zeal; but such a construction as that above is hardly allowable in modern English, except in poetry. In poetry the relative is sometimes omitted when it is the subject of a verb ; as, ' Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view, — Campbell. If the antecedent is a personal pronoun, it is often omitted ; as, Who steals my purse, steals trash = He who, etc. When who, which, and what are used in subordinate clauses, care must be taken to determine whether they are relatives, or whether they are interrogative pronouns. To determine this question in any given case, Professor Rushton suggests the following test : " Turn the sentence into a question. If the dependent clause gives the answer to such a question, the pronoun is an interrogative;^^ as, / asked who was there. Question. — What did you a>sk f Answer. — Who was there f They inquired what he was going to do. Question. — What did they inquire 9 Akswbs. — WhjoJk was he going todof THE PRONOUN 109 / / The person, number, and gender of a relative pro- noun are the same as the person, number, and gender of its antecedent. The antecedent may be a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, vpr a clause. We join ourselves to no party thai does not carry the flag and keep step to the music of the Union, — Choate, To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, sJie speaks A various language, — Bryant. We are bound to obey all the Divine commands, which we can not do without Divine aid. Homer is remarkably concise, which renders him lively and agreeable. — Blair's Rhetoric. Here the antecedents are party, him, to obey all the Divine commands, and the fact that Homer is concise. Exercise 46. — Fill the blanks with suitable relative pronouns, and, in each case, give a reason for your choice. ^ v ^ ^ 1. The eloquent orator, we greatly admired, has passed away. . . ^2. This is the student all are praising. v5. This is the student ^i^^^— I understand has written an ex- cellent paper, i ^ ; 4. The pain I * • conscience gives the man '-- has already done wrong is part of his punishment. ^5. Mr. Burchell was fond of the company of little children, K^ he used to call harmless little men. ^^^ 110 ETTMOpOGT 6. The only informatioil^'!-^ the cupbearer could collect from the bystanders was, that the knight had be^ njaced in a litter belonging to a lady among the spectatorsp^^^had trans- ported him out of the press. 7. The recesses of the wooded country WBtp held dangerous at that time from the number of outlaws Ai^ oppression and poverty had driven to despair, andA-^^ occupied the forests in such large bands ''- ctfijild easily bid defiance to the feeble police of the period. v^8. On the day of his death, this simple Western attorney, ^' •'^ according to one party was a vulgar joker, and ^^ "'^^H he doctrinaires among his own supporters accused of wanting every element of statesmanship, was the most absolute ruler in Christendom. In parsing an interrogative or a relative pronoun, state: 1. The antecedent. 2. The person, number, and gender. 3. The case. 4. The reason for the case : of what verb it is the subject, etc. Exercise 47. — In the following excerpts point out the clauses introduced by relative pronouns, state whether they are noun or adjective clauses, and parse each of the relative pronouns : 1. There is no creature with which man has surrounded himself that seems so much like a product of civilization, ^o much like the result of development in special lines and in special fields, as the honey-bee. — Burroughs, THE PRONOUN 111 '^ 2. Eatrina Van Tassel was withal a little of a coquette, as. might be perceived even in her dress, which was a mixture of ancient and modem fashions, as most suited to set off her charms. — Irving, 5. Who is the happy warrior ? Who is he That eveiy man in arms should wish to be I It is the generous spirit who, when brought Among the tasks of real life, hath wrought Upon the plan that pleased his boyish thought; Whose high endeavors are an inward light That makes the path before him always bright ; Who with a natural instinct to discern What knowledge can perform is diligent to learn; Abides by this resolve and stops not there, But makes his moral being his prime care. — Wordsworth. 4. What surprised me most was the sound of my own voice, which I had never before heard at a declamatory pitch, and which impressed me as belonging to some other person, who — and not myself — would be responsible for the speech: a prodigious consolation and encouragement imder the circum- stances. — Hawthorne. Adjective Pronouns There are certain words that sometimes modify the meanings of nouns and sometimes take the place of nouns. In the sentence, This hook is mine, this is an adjective ipodifying the meaning of the noun hook. In the sentence, TTiis is minej the word this stands for both the adjective and the noun, and it is therefore called an adjective pronoun. 112 ETYMOLOGY Definition. — An adjective pronoun is a pronoun ^ used in place of an adjective and a noun. These are my books. Love ally trust few, wrong none. Adjective pronouns are of two kinds, demonstrative and indefinite. Demonstrative Pronouns Definition. — A demonstrative pronoun is a pro- noun used to point out that to which it refers. The demonstrative pronouns are this with its plural these^ and that with its plural those. Demonstrative pronouns are used under the follow- ing conditions : 1. When they introduce or specify some person or object, this referring to the nearer, that to the more distant. •*-£.-• r 7 This t^ my book. Is that your cane f Are these your gloves f Those are my friends. 2. When they have a backward reference and are equivalent to the one . . . the other; this referring to the latter of two things mentioned, that to the former. Some place their bliss in action, some in ease, Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. — Pope. . . . reason raise o^er instinct as you can In this His God directs, in that 'tis man. — Pope. 3. When that or those is used to prevent the repetition of a preceding noun ; as, THE PRONOUN 113 The castle of Sterling is such, another as thai of Edinburgh. — Smollett The mercantile buildings of New York are finer than those of London. 4. When this or that refers to a word, phrase, or clause going before ; as, He had great store of knowledge. This he used to the greatest possible advantage. To be or not to be, that is the question. Indefinite Pronouns Definition. — An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not denote any particular object. The indefinite pronouns are one, nonCy some, any, aught, naught, each, every, either, neither, other, else, sundry^ several, certain, all, with various compounds. Some of these words are used as pronouns ; others, as adjectives; most of them, in both ways. When used as pronouns, they are called indefinite pronouns ; when used to modify the meanings of nouns, they are adjectives. One is simply the numeral one with derived meanings. It is used both as a pronoun and as an adjective. As a pronoun, it has a plural ones and a possessive case one's. Its principal meanings are as follows : 1. As denoting people in general ; as, One can say to one's friend the things that stand in need of pardon, and at the time be sure of it. — Pope. The reflexive forms one^s self and oneself are used with the same meaning. MAX. SCH. 6BAM. — 8 116 ETYMOLOGY Occasionally we find either used for each; as. On either side is level fen. — Crdbbe. It is better to use each for one and other; either, for one ox otJier; as, Each claimed to be right ; either might have been mistaken. Either or neither should never be used to refer to more than two objects. For neither in the following sentence substitute no one: Only three persons saw the actj and neither of them would testify. CeHain is used both as a pronoun and as an adjective ; as, To hunt the boar with certain of his friends. — Shakespeare. A certain man planted a vineyard. — Bible. Same is used with the to prevent the repetition of the noun to which it refers, and is then an indefinite pronoun ; as. He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same bringeth forth much fruit. — John x v. 5. This usage is now generally confined to legal phraseology. Such is commonly used as an adjective, occasionally as a pronoun : Such hatmony is in immortal souls. — Shake9peare. Mere strength of understanding would have made him such in any age. — Be Quincey. Usage justifies the use of such with another adjective, though some grammarians have pronounced it wrong. Milton speaks of such worthy attempts. So is often used with the force of an indefinite pronoun, when we might expect such; as. We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow; Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. — Pope. y THE PRONOUN 117 ExEBCiSE 48. — Analyze the following sentences^ and parse each protwun : "^1. Shall 1 ask the brave soldier who fights by mj side In the cause of mankind, if our creeds agree ? — Moore. ^. Apologies count only for that which theyjdo not alter. — Disraeli. 3. Kind as a mother herself, she touched lug. cheeks with herhands. 4. Gorgeous she entered the sunlight which gathered her up in a flame. While straight in her open carriage, she to the hospital came. — Mrs. Browning. 6. He giveth little who gives but tears, He giveth his best who aids and cheers, He does well in the forest wild Who slays the monster and saves the child; But he does better, and merits more Who drives the wolf from the poor man's door. — Trowbridge. ^. Her presence lends its warmth and health . To all who come before it. If womajQ lost us Eden, such As she alone restore it. — Whittier. ^. That power of endurance, Tfeat quickness of apprehension, that calmness of judgment, which enable man to seize the opportunities that others lose, and persist in the lines of con- duct in which others fail — are these not talent ? — are they not in the present state of the world, among the most dis- tinguished and influential of mental gifts ? — Buskin. Exercise 49. — Make sentences containing thisy that ; these, those ; one^Sy ones ; each other, one another ; either, neither ; the one, the other. 118 ETYMOLOGY THE ADJECTIVE Definition. — An adjective is a word used with a v/noun or a pronoun to describe or limit its meaning. An adjective may modify the meaning of a noun in three ways: 1. As an attributive modifier; as^ ITie brown fiorse, Tlie fall chimney. Here a certain quality is attributed, or attdcked, to X the name of an object. The adjective becomes part of the description of the object. 2. Asa predicate adjective. In ITie brown horse is fast, the quality oi fastness is predicated or asserted of the brown horse; and hence the adjective modifies the subject noun by the help of the verb. 3. As an appositive modifier. The type of this modifier is a noun in apposition. In the sentence, ITie aged man, stiff loith rheumatism and spent with toil, hobbled painfully along, we ^ have in stiff and spent examples of adjective modifiers so nearly akin to the noun in apposition that they inay be called appositive. The appositive is merely a looser, more indirect, relation to a noun than that of the attributive modifier. The appositive modifier is easily changed into an adjective clause : The aged man, who loas stiff, etc. Classes y Adjectives are divided into three principal classes: I. Adjectives of quality ; as, good manners, thick soles, French gloves. Y II. Adjectives of quantity; as, mtich money, enough time, one hook. V III. Demonstrative adjectives ; as, a hoitse, the sun, this lot, first stanza. THE ADJECTIVE 119 Adjectives of quality denote the kind of thing that the noun names, or the class to which it belongs. Adjectives derived from proper nouns, as, Americmiy Germany French^ are called proper adjectives, and should always be written with capital letters. Adjectives of quantity tell either how many or hoio much we mean of that which the noun names. They include, 1. The cardinal numeral adjectives: one, two, ^^threey etc. The words pair, dozen, hundred, thousand, million, are some- times nouns, and they may be used in the plural. One, two, etc., may also be used as nouns, as in the expres- sion. There are three twos in six. V^ 2. Words of indefinite meaning: all, half, many^ few, much, little, several, enough. In such expressions as, A great many men. Full many a flower, the modifying words, A great many and Full many a, are best parsed as phrase adjectives. Demonstrative adjectives include : 1. The article. There are two articles: an, some- ^ times contracted into a, called the indefinite article; and the, called the definite article. y 2. Ordinal numeral adjectives; as, first, second, third, used to point out which one of a series. 3. Words like yon, yonder; this, that; these, those, when used as adjectives. The indefinite article an, derived from the numeral 120 ETYMOLOGY onej Is used in speaking of any one of the things for which the noun is the name ; as, an orange^ an old man. The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound ; as, an apple, an heir. An drops the n and becomes a before a word be- ginning with a consonant sound, and with u when it has the force of yu; as^^ a man, a horsey a vnre, a year, a university. Some writers, though by no means all, use an be- fore vocal h where the accent falls on the second syllable of the word ; as, an historical event Where several objects are mentioned, each to be considered separately, the indefinite article should be repeated before each ; as. Leave not a foot of verse, a foot of stone, A page, a grave, that tliey can call their own. — Pope- But where two or more nouns refer to the same person or thing, the indefinite article should precede only the first. A king and a priest refers to two dif- ferent men. A king and priest means that one man holds both offices. By the same rule, A black and a ivhite horse, means two different horses ; a black and white horse, means that both colors are to be found on the same horse. As the indefinite article points out one thing of a kind or class, it should never be used with a word denoting a whole kind or class. We should never THE ADJECTIVE 121 say, A silkworm is a kind of a caterpillar y but, A silkworm is a kind of caterpillar. Where a noun preceded by the indel&nite article has two or more adjective modifiers, all of the same general meaning, the article should be prefixed only to the first ; as. There is aboxU the whole book a vehement, contentious, replying manner. But when a marked distinction or emphasis is to be noted, the article should be repeated before each adjective; as, He went like one that hath been stunned. And is of sense forlorn ; A sadder and a wiser man He rose the morrow mom, — Coleridge. The definite article the has several uses : 1. To point out a particular object, or classes of objects ; as. The man that hath no music in himself Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. — Shakespeare. 2. To point out some object previously known or mentioned; as, / can not agree with the editorial I read this morning. 3. To call attention to a proper noun, naming some distinguished person or thing ; as, Shakespeare was fhe Homier of our dramatic literature. 122 ETYMOLOGY We speak also of the Smithsy the Macdondlds, as members of the same clan or family; and of the Hudson, the Alps, the Mediterranean. 4. To indicate a whole class ; as in the names of nations, the French, the Spanish, the Scot, the Mexi- can ; in singular nouns used as terms in the natural sciences, the geranium, the cat, the hear ; in the names of professions, as the churchy the har, the army. 5. With an adjective to form an equivalent for an abstract noun ; as, the true, the heautiful. When two or more nouns in apposition, or when two or more adjectives, modify the meaning of the same noun, the definite article, except for the sake of emphasis, is placed only before the first ; as, / received a visit from Mr. Richardson, the broker and real estate agent. If parts allure thee, think how Bacon shined, The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind. — Pope. When the adjectives do not describe one and the game thing, the article must be repeated if the noun is in the singular, or it must be placed before the first adjective only if the noun is in the plural ; as, The first and the second chapter of GenesiSy or. The first and second chapters of Genesis. Exercise 49. — In the following sentences insert the article lohere necessary, and give reasons for its inser- tion or omission: THE ADJECTIVE 121 say, A silkworm is a kind of a caterpillar y but, A silkworm is a kind of caterpillar. Where a noun preceded by the indefinite article has two or more adjective modifiers, all of the same general meaning, the article should be prefixed only to the first ; as, There is about the whole book a vehement, contentiouSy relying mamier. But when a marked distinction or emphasis is to be noted, the article should be repeated before each adjective J as. He went like one that hath been stunned. And is of sense forlorn ; A sadder and a wiser man He rose the morrow mom, — Coleridge. The definite article the has several uses : 1. To point out a particular object, or classes of objects ; as, The man that hath no music in himself Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, Is Jit for treasons, stratojgems, and spoils, — Shakespeare. 2. To point out some object previously known or mentioned; as, / can not agree with the editorial I read this morning, 3. To call attention to a proper noun, naming some distinguished person or thing ; as, Shakespeare was the Homer of our dramatic literature. 122 ETYMOLOGY We speak also of the Smithsy the Macdondldsy as members of the same clan or family; and of the Hudson^ the Alps, the Mediterranean. 4. To indicate a whole class ; as in the names of nations, the French, the Spanish, the Scot, the Mexi- can ; in singular nouns used as terms in the natural sciences, the geranium, the cat, the hear ; in the names of professions, as the church, the bar, the army. 5. With an adjective to form an equivalent for an abstract noun ; as, the true, the beautiful. When two or more nouns in apposition, or when two or more adjectives, modify the meaning of the same noun, the definite article, except for the sake of emphasis, is placed only before the first ; as, / received a visit from Mr. Richardson, the broker and real estate agent. If parts allure thee, think how Bacon shined, The wisest, brightest, meanest of mankind. — Pope. When the adjectives do not describe one and the game thing, the article must be repeated if the noun is in the singular, or it must be placed before the first adjective only if the noun is in the plural ; as, The first and the second chapter of Genesis, or. The first and second chapters of Genesis. Exercise 49. — In the following sentences insert the article where necessary, and give reasons for its inser- tion or omission: THE ADJECTIVE 123 1. A cotton and silk umbrella were found. v^. A cotton and silk umbrella was found. ^. The carriage was broken ; but neither the driver nor horse was injured. v^ The first and second examples are difficult. \^ The first and second example are difficult. 6. Lowell, the poet and scholar, was received cordially m England. 7. She wore a beautiful and costly gown at the ball. 8. Both the house and stable are for sale. 9. Which is the larger, the box or trunk ? 10. A black and tan dog is running up the street.. 11. Mr. Jones is a queer kind of man. Degrees of Comparison Adjectives are not inflected to express gender, per- son, or case ; but qualitative and a few quantitative adjectives undergo changes to express the degree or relative amount of the quality or the quantity. These changes are called degrees of comparison. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. Definition. — The positive degree is the simplest form of an adjective, and expresses merely the pos- session of a quality to some extent not specified. A fall tree, A good man, A fast train. Definition. — The comparative degree of an adjec- tive is the form of it that is used to denote that one thing or class of things has more or less of a certain quality than another thing or class of things. 124 ETYMOLOGY John is strongs f than James. Oratiges are /ess sour than lemons. Definition. — The superlative degree of an adjec- tive is the form of it that is used to denote that one of three or more things or classes of things has the ^xighest or the lowest degree of a certain quality. Diamonds are the least perishable of precious stones. Jupiter is the largest of the planets. The following rules are given for forming the comparative and superlative degrees from the positive. 1. Adjectives of one syllable, and many adjectives of two syllables, usually add er to the positive to form th^ comparative, and est to form the superlative. PosUive Comparative Superlative bright brighter brightest happy happier happiest able abler ablest mellow mellower mellowest genteel genteeler genteelest The following orthographical changes should be noted : (a) If the positive ends in e silent, only r and st are added : brave braver bravest (b) Adjectives ending in a single consonant pre- ceded by a single vowel double the final consonant before er and est. THE ADJECTIVE 125 red redder reddest big bigger biggest hot hotter hottest (c) If the positive ends in y, preceded by a con- sonant, the y is changed into i before er and est. pretty prettier prettiest 2. Adjectives of more than two syllables usually form the comparative and superlative degrees by prefixing more and mosty or less and leasts to the simple form of the adjective. beautiful more beautiful most beautiful cheerful less cheerful least cheerful This last is not a true inflection, but a substitute for inflection. Some writers prefer the forms in er and est even for very long words. Thomas Carlyle uses fruitfuller^ powerfullest, injlammablest. It is largely a matter of euphony. In the older writers, double comparatives and su- perlatives, such as more braver, most unkindest, are used. These are now regarded as incorrect. Some adjectives, few in number but of very fre- quent occurrence, are irregular in their comparison. The most important are given below : Positive Comparative Superlative good better best bad, ill, or evil worse worst little • less least much more most 126 ETYMOLOGY PoaUive Comparative Superlative many late far more later, latter farther* most latest, last farthest near nearer nearest old forth, adv. older, elder further oldest, eldest furthest fote hind former hinder foremost, first hindmost in, adv. inner inmost, innermost out, adv. outer, utter outmost, outermost; utmost, uttermost neath, prep. nether nethermost up, prq>, nigh upper nigher upmost, uppermost nighest, next top, noun topmost The double comparatives worser and lesser are now seldom used. Older SLui oldest Bive used ot both persons and things; elder and eldest of persons only ; as. My eldest sister. Former, latter, elder, upper, inner, are now used principally to mark relations of space or time, seldom as comparatives. Adjectives that in themselves express the highest degree of a quality, or that have no shades of mean- ing, are not compared ; as, supreme, extreme, eternalj infallihUj perpendicular , dead. The comparative degree of an adjective is ijsed when two things are compared ; the superlative, when Tnore than two are compared. Of two such lessons, why forget The nobler and the manlier one? — Byi'on. THE ADJECTIVE 127 This, though a good rule for beginners, is not al- ways adhered to by writers of authority. Thackeray writes, This court had been the most magnificeni of the two. When a comparative is used with I run, walk, swim. 2. The past is formed in two ways : (a) By a change in the body of the word ; as I write, I wrote. Verbs of this kind are called by some gram- marians strong verbs; by others, irregular verbs. (&) By adding dj edy or t to the present; as, I love, loved; walk, walked ; express, expressed or ex- presst. By some grammarians these are called weak verbs ; by others, regular verbs. The termination t may be used instead of d or ed when the present ends in s, or other hissing sound. 3. The perfect tenses^ except in the progressive form, are formed by means of the present, past, and future of have, followed by the past participle ; as, I have written, had written, shall have written. 4. The progressive tenses are formed by the parts of the verb he, followed by the imperfect participle ; as, I am writing, was writing, have been writ- ing, shall he writing. 5. The future tenses are formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and willj followed by the in- finitive ; as, / shall write, shall have written. THE VERB 163 Care should be taken to use shall and will cor- rectly. Shall originally meant to owe; as in the words of Chaucer: That faith I shall {I oive) to God, Hence the word still involves something of the idea of obligation. Will involves the idea of wish or intention, and is more appropriate in the first person as expressing the choice, intent, or decision of the speaker : / will speak = It is my intention to speak. In using shall and will we should observe the following: (a) Shall is used with subjects of the first person to express simple futurity. / shall be glad to go with you. We shall be sorry to have you go, (&) Will is used with subjects of the second and third persons to express simple futurity. Tou will find the book on the table. He will be glad to re- ceive it, (c) Will is used with subjects of the first person to express determination or a promise. We will work with all our might, (d) Shall is used with subjects of the second and third persons to express determination on the part of the speaker. Ton shall not do it ; I will prevent you. John has been so industrious lie shall have a reward. 164 ETTMOLOOY (e) In asking k question we use shall or vnU with subjects of the second and third persons, according as we expect shall or toiU in the answer. Shall you he sorry to have school f I shall. Will you carry this for me? I will with pleasure, if) In asking a question we use shall with a subject of the first person. Shall I dose the mndowf Shall we start at oncef 6. The tenses of the subjunctive mode are formed in the same manner as the tenses of the indicative^ except ^heifuture^ which takes would or should as the auxiliary. The future subjunctive expresses an ac- tion or state represented in time as dependent or con- tingent upon some other action or state which must precede it; as, If he came she would go. Would and should are the past tenses of uM and shaUj and are used, when auxiliaries, according to the same rules. 7. The imperative mode is used in but one tense, the present. It is the simple form of the verb used as a command, a request, or an exhortation; as. Strike and spare not. 8. The tenses of ih^ passive voice are formed by the tenses of the verb to &e, followed by the past participle of the principal verb ; as, The letter is written, was written, shall he written* THE VERB 166 In addition to the forms of the verb given above, the English language, by means of auxiliary verbs, employs many other forms to express different shades of meanmg. The more important of these are the following : 1. The emphatic form; as, I do write, I did write. This form is composed of the present and past tenses of the auxiliary verb do and the infinitive of the principal verb. 2. The interrogative form. A verb is made in- terrogative (a) by placing the subject after it; as. Was he there f Breathes there a man f (b) By placing the subject after the first auxiliary; as, Will you come with me f (c) By the use of do ; as, Do you water the garden f 3. The negative form. A verb is made negative (a) by putting not after the verb ; as, He comes not (&) By placing not after the first auxiliary in a verb phrase ; as, / do not say so. He has not come. Other verb phrases are formed by the use of mxzy as an auxiliary ; as. Let him rest that he may not become weary. The verb may is usually a notional verb, followed by an infinitive ; as, You may go now. The verbs must and can are always notional verbs ; as, Tou must go at once. Tou can do well. In analyzing sentences containing any of the forms of the verbs may ( used as a notional verb ), can^ or 166 ETYMOLOGY must J the verb and the infinitive may be called a verb phrase ; in parsing, however, advanced students should treat the notional verb and the infinitive separately. Verb phrases consisting of auxiliary and notional verbs should be parsed as single verbs. (For the parsing of verb phrases, see pp. 183 and 187.) The treatment of verb phrases is continued under the heads of conjugation and defective verbs (pp. 167, 174), Exercise 65. — Justify or correct the use of shall, will, should, and would in the following sentences : ^ 1. I fear that we shall lose the train. \ 2. I think it will rain to-day, V S. I shall be happy to dine with you. v4. Will you dine with me on Thursday? I will, with pleas)H*e. v^. Shall you be fifteen or sixteen to-mortow ? 1 shall be sixteen. 6. Shall you be able to come ? 7. I judge that we shall have snow to-morrow, 8. I should be sorry to miss your call. 9. Listen, my children, and you shall hear Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere. 10. I could teach you How to choose right, but I am then forsworn ; So will I never be. 11. Brutus. Why com'st thou ? Ghost. To tell thee thou shalt see me at Philippi. Brutus, Well ; then I shall see thee again ? Ghost, Ay, at Philippi. Brutus, Why, I will see thee at Philippi, then. THE VERB 187 12. lAcinius. It is a mind That shall remain a poison where it is, Nor poison any further, Coriolanus. Shall remain ! Hear you this Triton of the minnows ? Mark you His absolute "shall"? 13. He said that he should like to go with us. 14. He said that he hoped she would come soon. 15. Will I give you a subscription ? 16. What shall you do with your money ? 17. He will go if I have the power. 18. If you would succeed, you must begin early. Conjugation By arranging in an orderly way the verb forms that in the various modes and tenses correspond to the different persons and numbers of subject nouns and pronouns, we have what is called conjugation. In conjugating a verb it is customary to mention its infinitives and participles. The present indicative or the infinitive, and the past indicative, of any verb, together with its present and past participles, are called its principal parts, since one of these parts is found in each of the various forms of that verb. A verb that wants any of these principal parts is a defective verb ; if any one of these four parts has two different forms, the verb is a redundant verb. 168 BTTMOLOOY CONJUGATION OP AUXILIARY VERBS SHALL AND WILL INDICAXnTE MODE Pbbsbnt Tbnsb 1. I Sinffuiar ( shall, IwUl, 2. Thou \ '^^} I wilt, shall, 3. He j shall I will. Plural j shall, (wm, j shall, ( will, 1. We 2. You Singular ^ J i should, ( would, Past Tbnbb Plural should, would, 2 mi j shouldst, ( wouldst, I 3. He r^"'!?' would. 1. We j 2 Y j should, ( would, a They I should, would. Shall and willf followed by the infinitive without to, form the future tenses in the indicative mode. Shoidd and would, though originally past in meaning, are now used to form the future tenses of the subjunctive mode, par- ticularly when the verb is not preceded by one of the con- junctions expressing a condition, if, though, etc. When should and would are used to state facts, they are notional verbs in the indicative mode and are followed by a dependent infinitive ; as, / should like to see you. They wouM go in bathing. Will is also used as a notional verb in the sense of choose, determine. It is then conjugated regularly. THE VERB 169 HAVE Prbrbnt Past PSBSBNT Past Paeticiplb Participle Principal Parts: Have. Had. Having. Had. INDICATIVE MODE Pbbbbnt Tbnsb Past Tbnsb Singular Plural Singular Plural 1. I have, 1. We have, 1. I had, 1. We had. 2. Thou hast, 2. You have. 2. Thou hadst, 2. You had. 3. He has, or 3. They have, hath, 3. He had, 3. They had. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (Generally used after \f, that, thovgh, etc.) Pbbsbnt Tbnsb Past Tbnsb Singular Plural Singular Plural 1. I have, 1. We have, 1. I had, 1. We had, 2. Thou have, 2. You have. 2. Thou had, 2. You had. 3. He have, 3. They have. 3. He had, 3. They had. IMPERATIVE MODE INFINITIVES Pbbsbnt Tbnsb Pbbsbnt Pbrfbct Singular Plural 2. Have (thou). 2. Have (you or ye). To have. To have had. Prbsbnt Past Perfect Participles : Having. Had. Having had. The verb have is both notional and auxiliary. As a notional verb, meaning possess, hold, keep, it is found in all the modes and tenses. As an auxiliary verb, its present tense is used to form the present perfect tenses of other verbs, as, He has succeeded; its 170 ETYMOLOGY past tense; to form the past perfect tenses, as, He had succeeded ; its future tense, to form the future perfect tenses, as, He will have succeeded. When it is used as an auxiliary, the original sense of possessing no longer appears. Hast is a contraction for havest; Juid, for haved ; has and haih, for haves and haveth, BE Pbbsbnt Past Present Past Pabticiplb PabticipiiB Pbincipal Parts : Be. Was. Being. Been. INDICATIVE MODE Pbbsbnt Tense Past Tbnsb Singular Plural Singular Plural 1. I am, 1. We are, 1. I was, 1. We were, 2. Thou art, 2. You are, 2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 3. He is, 3. They are. 3. He was, 3. They were, Pbbsbnt Pbbfbct Tense Singular Plural 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 3. He has been, 3. They have been. Past Perfect Tbnsb Singular Plural 1. I had been, 1. We had been, 2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 3. He had been, 3. They had'been. FuTUBB Tense Singular Plural 1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 3. He will be, 3. They will be ; or, 1. I will be, 1. We will be, 2. Thou Shalt be, 2. You shall be, 3. He shall be, 3. They shall be. TBE VEBB 171 Future Perfect Tsnsb Singular 1. I shall have been, 2. Thou wilt have been, 3. He will have been, 1. I will have been. or. Plural 1. We shall have been, 2. You will have been, 3. They will have been ; 1. We will have been, 2. Thou shalt have been, 2. You shall have been. 3. He shall have been, 3. They shall have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (Generally used after if, that, though, etc.) Present Tense Singular Plural 1. I be, 2. Thou be, ;i Hebe, 1. We be, 2. You be, 3. They be. Past Tense Singular Plural 1. I were, 1. We were, 2. Thou wert, 2. You were, 3. He were, 3. They were Present Perfect Tense Singular Plural 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 2. Thou have been, 2. You have been, 3. He have been, 3. They have been. Past Perfect Tense The same in form as in the indicatiye mode. 1. I 2. Thou 3. He [be. Singular j should ( would j shouldst ) , ( wouldst ) ' ( should ) y^ \ would [ ^' Future Tense Plural { should ) , 1 would \^' j should ( would 1. We 2. You \he, be. 172 ETYMOLOGY Future Perfect Tense Singular Plural ^■^ {torn } have been, 1. We { ^^^^f^* [ have been, 2. Thou \ ^ ^^ ^ i have been, 2. You ] ^ ^i. l have been, 3. He ] ^ ^ 1 J f ^ave been, 3. They j ^ ^^ , i have been. IMPERATIVE MODE Present Tense Singular Plural 2. Be (thou). 2. Be (you or ye). mFiNmvES Present Perfect To be. To have been. Present Past Perfect Participles : Being. Been. Having been. As an auxiliary the verb be is used, in connection with the present participle, in forming the progressive forms of the tenses ; and, in connection with the past participle, in forming the tenses of transitive verbs in the passive voice. Exercise 66. — Write out the conjugation of the verb write, progressive form, hy joining the present participle to the various parts of the verb 6e. BO Present Past Present Past Participle Participle Principal Parts : Do. Did. Doing. Done. THE VEBB 178 // INDICATIVE MODE Singular 1. I do, 2. Thou dost, 3. HedoeSy Pbbsbnt Tbnsb Pluna 1. We do, 2. You do, 3. They do. Singular 1. I did 2. Thou didst, 3. He did, Past Tbnsb Plural 1. We did, 2. You did, 3. They did. Doj as a notional verb, is found in all the voices, modes, and tenses. DOf as an auxiliary verb, has three uses : 1. To form, together with the present infinitive of another verb, equivalents for the present and past tenses. These equivalents are sometimes used for the sake of emphasis, in which case the stress of the voice in speaking is laid upon the auxiliary ; as, J i/lo see. He did fall. She does succeed. Fre- quently, however, they are used merely to improve the sound of the sentence ; as, Thou dost prefer above aU temples the up- right heart and pure. 2. To form equivalents for the present and past in negative and interrogative sentences ; os, Ido not hear you. Do you hear me 9 Did he not tell you 9 3. To form emphatic imperatives ; as. Do be still. Do keep quiet. Do have patience. In all these expressions do is really a transitive verb, and its object is an infinitive ; but it is more convenient to parse the auxiliary and the principal verb together as one verb. The verb after do is often omitted ; as, / can not walk as fast as you do (walk). 174 ETYMOLOGY MAT INDICATIVE MODE Present Tense Singular Plural 1. I may, 1. We may, 2. Thou mayst, 2. You may, 3. He may, 3. They may. Past Tense Singular Plural 1. I might, 1. We might, 2. Thou mights t, 2. You might, 3. He might, 3. They might. Originally / may meant I am able. Now it means I am al- lowed to. In this sense mxiy is a notional verb. It is followed by an infinitive ; as. The Board may elect their own president and secretai^y. In cases, however, where may is in the subjunctive mode, especially after that and lest, the idea of permission almost disappears, and it becomes an auxiliary, forming an equivalent for the subjunctive mode of the principal verb ; as. Let him eat, that he may not grow faint. Be not idle, lest ye may come to want. The present and past tenses of the subjunctive mode are the same as those of the indicative, except that the inflection of the second person singular is omitted. DEFECTIVE VERBS Several of the auxiliary verbs are defective (p. 167), as has been shown. Several notional verbs, as can, * musty ought, dare, wit, need, hight, dight, are either *defective or have some peculiarity in their con- jugation. THE VERB 176 CAN INDICATIVE MODE pRBBBNT Tense Past Tbnbb Singular Plural Singular Plural 1. I can, 1. We can, 1. I could, 1. We could, 2. Thou canst, 2. You can, 2. Thoucouldst, 2. You could, 3. He can, 3. They can. 3. He could, 3. They could. In the author's judgment, can is always a notional verb, and the word following it is an infinitive ; but see p. 182. The I in could does not properly belong to the verb. It was inserted to make the word agree in form with would and should. Originally can meant to Jenow; and from the idea of knowl- edge arose the idea of power. The adjective cunning was originally the present participle of this verb. Must is now used only in the present tense, indicative mode. It has no variations of form. It is always notional, and is fol- lowed by a dependent infinitive ; as. He must be mistaken. Ought has but one change of form ; it adds est for the second person singular. Oughty though now generally used in the present tense, is an old form of the past tense of the verb owe. To express past time the dependent infinitive after ought must be past; as. These things ought ye to have done. To wit, meaning to know, is now used only as an infinitive in the sense of namely, that is to say. The forms I wot, God wot, are found in .old writers. For methinks, me lists, see pp. 93 and 130. Hight means was or is called. It has no other forcis. " A most singular word," says Skeat, "presenting the sole in- stance in English of a passive verb." Need, when it means to be in want of, is conjugated in the ordinary way. When it conveys the sense of being under a necessity, the third person is He need, noo He needs. ^ \ 176 ETTMOLOOT The third person, singular, needs, must not be confounded with the adverb needs; as. He needs advice. He must needs go through Samaria. Dight, a past participle, now rarely used, is a shortened form of digJUedy meaning prepared, adorned, as in Milton's line. The clouds in thousand liveries dight. Dare, meaning to have courage, to venture, has both dare and dares in the third person, singular, present tense, of the indica- tive mode, and a past tense durst. The Duke Dare no more stretch this finger of mine Than he dare stretch his own. — Shakespeare. I dare do all that may become a man, Who dares do more is none. — Shakespeare. Dare, meaning to challenge, defy, has a past tense dared, and is conjugated in the regular way. Quoth is used only in the first and third person, singular, past tense, and means, said I, said he. It is now rarely used. To show in both voices the conjugation of a verb, it will be necessary to select a transitive verb, since both voices are found only in transitive verbs. We give, therefore, the CONJUGATION OF TH£ TRANSITIVE VERB SEE Fresbnt Present Past Participle Past Participle Principal Parts : : See. Saw. Seeing. INDICATIVE MODE Present Tense Seen. Singular 1, I see, ACTIVE YOIOB 1. Plurca We see, 2. Thou seest, 2. You see, 3. He sees. 3, They see. THE VERB 17' Singular PASSIVE VOICE Plural 1. I am seen, 1. We are seen, 2. Thou art seen, 2. You are seen, 3. He is seen, 3. They are seen. Past Tense Singular active VOICE Plural 1. I saw, 1. We saw. 2. Thou sawest. 2. You saw, 3. He saw. 3. They saw. Singular PASSIVE VOICE Plural 1. I was seen, 1. We were seen. 2. Thou wast seen, 2. You were seen. 3. He was seen. 3. They were seen. Prbsbnt Perfect Tense Singular ACTIVE VOICE mural 1. I have seen. 1. We have seen. 2. Thou hast seen. 2. You have seen. 3. He has seen, 3. They have seen. Singular PASSIVE VOICE Plural 1. I have been seen, 1. We have been seen, 2. Thou hast been seen. 2. You have been seen, 3. He has been seen. 3. They have been seen Past Perfect Tense Singular ACTIVE VOICE Plural 1. I had seen, 1. We had seen. 2. Thou hadst seen. 2. You had seeu. 3. He had seen, MAX. soil. ORAM. — 12 3. They had seen. 178 ETYMOLOGY PASSIVB YOIOB Singular 1. I had been seen, 2. Thou hadst been seen^ 3. He had been seen, Plural 1. We had been seen, 2. You had been seen, 3. They had been seen FUTURB TbNBB AOTIYB YOIOB Singular 1. I shall or will see, 1. 2. Thou shalt or wilt see, 2. 3. He shall or will see, 3. Pluna We shall or will see. You shall or will see, They shall or will see PASSIYB YOIOB Singular 1. I shall or will be seen, 2. Thou shalt or wilt be seen, 3. He shall ox will be seen, Plural 1. We shall or will be seen, 2. You shall or will be seen 3. They shall or will be seen FuTURB Pbrfbot Tbnbb ACTIVE VOICE Singular Plurai 1. 2. I shall or will Thou shalt or wUt have ^' ^® ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ seen ^- ^^^ ®^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ have set*] 3. He shall or will ' 3. They shall or will PASSIVE VOICE Singular Plural 1. I shall or will have 1. We shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt been 2. You shall or will been 3. ke shall or will seen, 3. They shall or will^ seen. THE VERB 179 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (Generally used after if, lest, though, eta) Prbbbnt Tbnsb aotivb yoiob Singular Plural 1. I see, 1. We see, 2. Thou see, 2. You see, 3. He see, 3. They see. PASSIYB TOIOB Singular mural 1. I be seen, 1. We be seen, 2. Thou be seen, 2. You be seen, 3. He be seen, 3. They be seen. Past Tbnsb aotiyb yoiob Singular Plural 1. I saw, 1. We saw, 2. Thou saw, 2. You saw, 3. He saw, 3. They saw. PASSIYB YOICB Singular Plural 1. I were seen, 1. We were seen, 2. Thou wert seen, 2. You were seen, 3. He were seen. 3. They were seen. Prbsbnt Pbrfbct Tbnsb « aotiyb yoicb Singular Plural thou, he have seen. We, you, they have seen. PASSIYB YOICB Singular Plural thou, he have been seen. We, you, they have been seen. 180 ETYMOLOGY Singular I, thoU; he had seen. . Past Psbfbct Tbnbb AOTIVB YOIOB Plural We, you, they had seen. Singular I, thou, he had been seen. PASBIYB YOIOB Plural We, you, they had been Singular 1. I should 2. Thoushouldst 3. He should FUTUKB TbNSB AOTIVB VOIOB see. Plural 1. We 2. You 3. They , should see. Singular 1. I should 2. Thou shouldst 3. He should PASBIYB YOIOB be seen. 1. We 2. You 3. They Pluna should be seen. Singular 1. I should 2. Thoushouldst 3. He should . Future Perfect Tbnsb aotiyb yoioe 1. We have seen, 2. You 3. They Plural . should have seen Singular 1. I should 2. Thoushouldst 3. He should PASSIYB YOIOB have been e^^r, 2. You seen, 3. They Plural should have been seen. TB^ VERB 181 IMPERATIVE MODE Pbebbmt Tense active voice Singular Plural 2. See (thou). . 2. See (ye or you). PASSIVE VOICE Singular PlurcU 2. Be (thou) seen. 2. Be (ye or you) seea INFINITIVES ACTIVE VOICE PA8SIVB VOICB Present Tense ; To see. To be seen. Present Perfect Tense : To have seen. To have been seen. PARTICIPLES ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICB Present : Seeing. Being seen. Past : Seen. Perfect : Having seen. Having been seen. Exercise 67. — Write the emphatic form of the present and past tenses, indicative mode, of 8BB. Write the, interrogative forms of the tenses of the indicative mode. Write the progressive forms of the tenses, both active and passive voice, wherever possible, in the interrogative and affirmative forms. Write the tenses of the indicative mode, active and passive voices, as they would be used in negative sen- tences. 182 ETTMOLOOT Some authors use the verbs may, can^ and musi, together with the past tenses of will and shallj as auxiliaries with which to form for other verbs what is called the potential mode. For teachers who prefer to retain this so-called mode, its conjugation for the verb lie (to recline) is given below. POTENTIAL MODE pRBSBNT Tense Singular Plural 1. I may, can, must lie, 1. We may, can, must lie, 2. Thou mayst, canst, must lie, 2. You may, can, must lie, 3. He may, can, must lie, 3. They may, can, must liis Past Tense Singular 1. I might, could, would, should lie, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst lie, 3. He might, could, would, should lie. Plural 1. We might, could, would, should lie, 2. You might, could, would, should lie, 3. They might, could, would, should lie. Present Perfect Tense Singular 1. I may, can, must have lain, 2. Thou mayst, canst, must have, lain, 3. He may, can, must have lain, Plural 1. We may, can, must have lain, 2. You may, can, must have lain, 3. They may, can, must have lain. THE VERB 183 Past Pbbfbgt Tbnsb Singular 1. I mighty could, would, should have lain, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst have lain, 3. He might, could, would, should have lain, Plural 1. We might, could, would, should have lain. 2. You might, could, would, should have lain, 3. They might, could, would, should have lain. The highest authorities on English grammar, such as Msetz- ner, Whitney, Bain, and Morris, are now agreed in rejecting the so-called potential mode. / rivay go may express a state- ment of fact, in which case may is in the indicative mode, fol- lowed by a dependent infinitive ; or a condition or supposition, in which case may should be parsed as in the subjunctive mode. In the first case may go may be regarded as a verb phrase in the indicative mode; in the second, in the subjunc- tive mode. It has been stated (p. 162) that verbs are regular or weak^ and irregular or strong. The formation of the various modes, tenses, numbers, and persons of the regular verb is very simple, but that of the irregular verb is much less so. The difficulty arises from the irregularity of the past tense, indicative mode, and the past participle. If these are known, for any verb, it is easy to inflect the verb throughout. The following list is given for reference. Verbs that are also regular are marked R. Forms little used are printed in italics. 184 ETYMOLOGY List or Irrbgulab Verbs PT999tU Pmc Past Participle PreeerU Past Past Participle Abide abode abode Catch caught caught Am, be was been Chide chid chidden, chid Arise arose arisen Awake awoke, R. awaked Choose chose chosen Bake baked j baked, \baken Cleave (clove, R, I cleft ) cloven, r cleft Bear bore, hare ibom (to split) Cling {^ clave clnng clung bore, Ahare borne Clothe clad,R. clad,R. Bear Come came come {to carry Cost cost cost Beat beat (beaten, (beat Creep crept crept Crow crew, B. crowed Begin began begun Cut cut cut Bend bent, R. bent, R. Dare durst, R. dared Bereave bereft, R. bereft, R. Deal dealt dealt Beseech besought besought Dig dug,R. dug, R. Bet bet, R. bet, R. Do did done Bid bid, bade bidden, bid Draw drew drawn Bind bound bound Dream dreamt, R. dreamt, R, Bite bit bitten, bit Dress drest,R- drest,R. Bleed bled bled drank, drunk Bless blest, R. blest, R. Drink drank Blow blew blown Drive drove driven Break (broke, [brake •broken DweU dwelt, R, dwelt, R. Eat ate eaten Breed bred bred Fall fell fallen Bring brought brought Feed fed fed- .' Build built, R. built, R. Feel felt felt Bum burnt, R. burnt, R. Fight fought fought Burst burst burst Find found found Buy bought bought Flee ^fled fled Can could Fling flung flung Cast cast cast Fly flew flown THE 1 VERB 18S List of Irregular Verbs — Continued Present Past • Past Participle Present Past Past Participle Forsake forsook forsaken Make made made Freeze froze frozen May might Get got got, gotten Mean meant meant Gild gilt,R. gilt, R. Meet met met Gird girt, R. girt, R. Mow mowed mown, R. Give gave given Pay paid paid Go went gone Pen pent, R. pent, R. (irave graved graven, R. {to inclose) Grind ground ground Put put put Grow grew grown Quit quit, R. quit, R. Hang hung, R. hung, R. Rap rapt, R. rapt, R. Have ^ had had R^ad read read Hear heard heard Rend rent rent Heave hove, R. hove, R. Rid rid rid Hew hewed hewn, R. Ride rode ridden Hide Hit hid hit hidden, hid hit Ring jrang (rung trung held. Rise rose risen Hold held holden Rive rived riven, R. Hurt hurt hurt Run ran run Keep . kept kept Saw sawed sawn, R. Kneel knelt, R. knelt, R. Say .said said Knit knit, R. knit, R. See saw seen Know knew known Seek sought sought Lade laded laden, R. Seethe seethed sodden, R. Lay laid laid Sell sold sold Lead led led Send sent sent I^ean leant, R. leant, R. Set set set Leap leapt, R. leapt, R. shake shook shaken Leave left left Shall should Lend lent lent Shape shaped shapen, R. Let let let Shave shaved shaven, R. Lie (redine) lay lain Shear sheared shorn, R. Light lit, R. lit, R. Shed shed shed Lose lost lost Shine shone, R . shone, R. 186 ETYMOLOGY List op Irregular Verbs — Continued Present Past Shoe Shoot Show Shred Shrink Shut Sing Sink Sit Slay Sleep Slide Sling Slink SUt Smite Sow Speak Speed Spend Spill Spin Spit Split Spread Spring Stand Stave Paet Participle shod shod shot shot showed shown, R. shred, R. shred, R. shrunk > shrunk ) shrunken shut j sang ) ( 9ung > shrank shut sang sung ( sank, (sunk sat slew slept slid slung slunk 6lit,R smote sung >- sunk sat slain slept ( slidden, ( slid . slung slunk slit, R. ( smitten, \smit sown, R, y spoken sped, R. spent spilt, R. sowed j spoke, ( spake sped, R. spent spilt, R. spun, span spun spit, spat spit split spread sprang stood j staved, J stove split spread sprung stood f staved, stove Present Stay Steal Stick Sting Strew Stride Past, I staid, [ stayed stole stuck stung . strewed strode Strike struck String Strive Swear Sweat Sweep Swell Swim Swing Take Teach Tear Tell Think Thrive Throw Thrust Tread Wax Wear Weave Weep Wet Past Participle ) staid, ) stayed stolen stuck stung strewn stridden j struck, ( stricken strung striven sworn strung strove swore stoare sweat, R. sweat, R. swept swept swelled swollen^ EL j swore ) ( stoare ) ( swam > ( svmm ) swung took taught tore, tare told thought ( thrived, 1 ( throve j threw thrust trod j waxed wore wove wept wet, R. swung taken .taught torn told thought thriven, R. thrown thrust trodden, trod waxen, R. worn woven wept wet» R. THE VERB 187 liTflT OP Ibbegulab YBRBa—Oontimied Present p . Poet ^^^ Participle Present Past ^^^^^^^^ Whet whet, R. whet, R. Work wrought, R. wrought, R. wm would Wring wrung wrung Win won won Write wrote written Wind wound, R. wound, R. Parsing the Vbbb The verb is parsed by 1. Telling whether it is regular or irregular. 2. Giving its principal parts. 3. Telling whether it is transitive or intransitive j and, if transitive, stating its voice. 4. Stating its mode, tense, number, and person. Exercise 68. — Far^^ the verbs and the verbals in the following selections: 1. You can easily learn this lesson. Model. — Can is a defective, intransitive verb, indioatire mode, present tense. It is second person, plural number, be- cause its subject you is second, plural. Learn is an infinitive, regular, transitive, aotive voice, present tense. It is an adverbial modifier of can. 2. Is he coming to-day ? Model. — la coming is an irregular, intransitive verb, pro* gressive form, indicative mode, present tense. It is third person, singular number, because its subject he is third, singular. 188 ETYMOLOGY 3. But a cunning man was the cobbler; He could call the birds from the trees, Charm the black snake out of the ledges, And bring back the swarming bees. — TFAiWer. 4. Ailie stepped up on a seat, and laid herself on the table, as her friend the surgeon told her ; arranged herself, gave a rapid look at James, 9hut her eyes, rested herself on me, and took my hand. The operation was at once begun ; it was nec- essarily slow ; and chloroform — one of God's best gifts to his suffering children — was then unknown. — Dr. John Brown, 5. And if we do but watch the hour, There never yet was human power That could evade, if unforgiven. The patient search and vigil long Of him that treasures up a* wrong. — Byron. 6. A male bird brought to his box a large, fine goose feather, which is a great find for a sparrow, and much coveted. After he had deposited his prize and chattered his gratulations over it, he went away in quest of his mate. His next-door neighbor, a female bird, seeing her chance, quickly slipped in and seized the feather, — and here the wit of the bird came out, for instead of carrying it into her own box, she fiew with it to a near tree, and hid it in a fork of the branches, then went home, and when her neighbor returned with his mate,^ was in- nocently employed about her own affairs. The proud male, finding his feather gone, came out of his box in a high state of excitement, and, with wrath in his manner and accusation on his tongue, rushed into the cot of the female. Not finding his goods and chattels there as he had expected, he stormed around awhile, abusing everybody in general, and his neighbor in par- ticular, and then went away as if to repair the loss. As soon as he was out of sight, the shrewd thief went and brought the THE ADVERB 189 feather home, and lined her own domicile with it. — John Burroughs, 7. I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea- shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble, or a prettier shell than ordinary, while the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me. — Sir Isaac Newton. THE ADVERB Definition. — An adverb is a word used toniodify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, / am very glad that you have done so well. Classes According to their functions in the sentence, ad- verbs are of two classes : 1. Simple adverbs; 2. Inter- rogative adverbs. • A simple adverb modifies the meaning of the word with which it is used ; as, But we steadfast// gazed on the face of the dead, And we bitterly thought of the marrow. — Wolf, Though the mills of Ood grind slowly, Yet they grind exceeding small. — H. W. Longfellow. Extremes of fortune are true wisdom's test, And he's of men most wise who bears them bestn \^ v lyO ETYMOLOGY An interrogative adverb is an adverb used to ask a question ; as^ When shaU we three meet again f — Shakespeare. Where are the pure, whom thou wouldst choose to love thee f — A. H. Clough. Why crisp the waters blttef — 0. W, Holmes. Adverbs may be classified according to their mean- ings as follows : 1. Adverbs of place, answering to the question (a) where f (&) whither ? (c) whence ? as, (a) here, there^ anywhere, yonder, etc. ; (6) hither^ thither^ backward^ etc. ; (c) hence, thence, etc. 2. Adverbs of time, answering to the question when ? as, nx)w, to-day, yesterday, to-morrow, by and hy, still, again, then, afterward, etc. 3. Adverbs of number ; as, cmoe, twice, thrice ; first, secondly, thirdly. • 4. Adverbs; of manner; as, how, well, HI, badly, aloud, so, thus. 5. Adverbs of degree; as, very, too, almost, quite, much, little, no, more, most, less, least, and the before an adjective in the comparative degree. 6. Adverbs of cause; as, why, wherefore, whence. 7. Adverbs of assertion and denial; as, yes, yea, aye, nay, no, not. THE ADVERB 191 The classification of adverbs according to meaning is given, not to be learned by rote, but as an aid in parsing. When the is used before an adjective in the comparative degree, as, ihe more the merrier, it is not the definite article, but an adverb. In this use it is derived from an Anglo-Saxon case of the demonstrative tJiat, meaning by so much, Tes and no, when standing alone in reply to questions, are not really adverbs. They are, in fact, the equivalents of sen- tences. Many adverbs are composed of two or more words ; as, from above, one by one, now and then, ever and anon, and the like. These may be called It can not be impressed too strongly or too fre- quently on the student, that the function which a word discharges in a sentence determines the part of speech to which it belongs : 1. Words that are ordinarily nouns are sometimes used as adverbs ; as in the expressions. Stone dead. He cares not a cent 2. Words that are ordinarily adjectives sometimes become adverbs; as. He speaks loud. He runs fast. The reason is that in olden times adverbs were formed from adjectives bj adding e ; as, bright, brigMe. In modern English the e has been dropped in these cases, and no other suffix sub- stituted. 3. Words that are usually adverbs occasionally become nouns; as, ^oir (= the present time) is the accepted time, aew is the day of salvation. He came from abroad. 192 ETYMOLOGY 4, Words that are usually adverbs become adjeotivea: (a) as modifiers ; (b) as predicate complements. (a) Drink no longer tvater, but use a little wine,, for thy stomach's sake and thine often infirmities, — Bible. Even Homer sometimes nods. This example some grammarians would explain by supply- ing an ellipsis : Even (so careful a poet as) Homer sometimes nods, (b) He is here. The child is away. In the last example (6) here and away are iisually parsed as adverbs. But a little consideration will show that the verb to be, when it is merely a copula, can not take a modifier. In the examples given above, the verb serves simply to assert locality. Hence, here and away may be parsed as adverbs used as predi- cate adjectives. 5, The word as is used as a relative pronoun, as an adverb, as a conjunction, and as a preposition. In the sentence Such as I have I give, as is a relative pronoun. In the sentence. He is as clever as his brother, the first as is an adverb of degree; the second as is a conjunction. In the sentence. As I am your subordinate I will obey you, as (= because) is a conjunction (see p. 202). In the sentence, Ruskin is greatest as an art critic, as is a preposition. Most adverbs of manner and degree admit of con^ parison : 1. Adverbs ending in ly are generally compared by prefixing more and most; as, THS ADVEBB 193 PosmYB keenly heaviifully GOMPARATIYB more keenly more beautifully SUPBBLATIYB most keenly most beautifully 2. Some adverbs are compared by adding the suffixes er and est; ss, POSITIVB CJOMPARATIVB SUPBRLATIVB fast faster fastest often oflener oftenest 3. The following adverbs are either irregular or defective in ' comparison : Positive COMPABATIVB SUPERLATIVB well better best ill worse worst much more most nigh (or near) nearer next forth further furthest far farther farthest late later last (or latest) little less least (rathe) rather Further and furthest are now generally used to express progress, advancement; farther and farthest to express dis- tance in space. Rather is derived from an old adjective rathe, meaning early. Milton speaks of the rathe primrose, and Tennyson writes, Till rathe she rose, half-cheated in the thought. Substitutes for the Adverb Adverbial phrases or adverbial clauses may take the place of adverbs, generally with the result of making the statement more precise. MAX. SCH. GRAM. — 13 \ \ 194 ETYMOLOGY For therej in the sentence He was seen there, we may substi- tute the phrases, in the street, at church, on top of the house^ with the result of more exactly defining our meaning. In He is not careful enough, we may substitute a clause for the word enough, and say He is not so careful as he ought to he. Pabsing An adverb is parsed by telling : 1. The verb, etc., whose meaning is modified. ] 2. In what way it modifies, whether as to place, ' time, manner, degree, etc. 3. Its degree of comparison. Exercise 69. — Pick out all the adverbs^ adverbial phraseSy and adverbial clauses in the following selec- tions^ and tell what each modifies: ^ 1. Out of the obliquity of the equator has come forth our civilization. — Motley. \y'2. Gone was the glow from his cheek and the fire from his eye. , 3. Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring ocean Speaks, and in accents disconsolate answers the wail of the forest. — Longfellow, 4. Before her queenly womanhood, How dared our hostess utter The paltry errand of her need To buy her fresh-churned butter ? — Whittier, 5. By searching in the grass, the skins of grasshoppers may be occasionally found still clinging to the spears of grass where they were left when the grasshoppers shed them. — E, S. Morse. THE PREPOSITION 196 6. A great part of Holland and Flanders has been reclaimed by draining, and thus rendered not only habitable, but extremely valuable for agricultural purposes. 7. Soon a remarkable fossil, shawled to the chin and band- aged like a mummy, appeared at the door of the after deck- house, and was shot into my arms by the next lurch of the ship. 8. There is nothing so desperately monotonous as the sea ; and I no longer wonder at the cruelty of pirates. Fancy an ex- istence in which the coming up of a clumsy finback whale, who says Pooh ! to you solemnly as you lean over the taffrail, is an event as exciting as an election on shore ! The dampness seems to strike into the wits as into the lucif er matches, so that one may scratch a thought half a dozen times and get nothing but a faint sputter, the forlorn hope of fire, which only goes far enough to leave a sense of suffocation behind it. — Lowell. ./ THE PREPOSITION Definition. — A preposition is a word used to show the relation between a noun or a pronoun and some other word — a verb, an adjective, another noun, or a pronoun. The noun or its equivalent that depends upon the preposition is in the objective case ; as, before me; after us; in the garden. The preposition is said to govern the noun in the objective case, and the noun is said to be the object of the preposition. Generally, the preposition precedes its object. In poetry, and when the object is a relative pronoun, the preposition often follows its object. 196 ETYMOLOGY stream descending to the sea, . Thy mossy hanks between, J%e flowerets blow, the grasses grow, The leafy trees are green. — A. H, Olough. What are you looking at ? Whom are you speaking about ? The equivalent of a noun may be the object of a preposition. The equivalent may be: !• A pronoun ; as, Cannon in front of them. — Tennyson. 2. A word that is usually an adjective or an adverb used as a noun ; as, Step by step lifts bad to good,, — Emerson, She changes quickly from grave to gay, from lively to severe. 3. A noun participle ; as, By straining every nerve you may succeed. 4. A noun phrase ; as, None knew thee hut to love thee, None named thee but to praise, — Halleck. 5. A noun clause; as. He was right in that he refused to go. When a preposition shows the relation of its object to a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, it aids in forming an adverbial phrase or clause ; when it shows the re- lation of its object to a noun or pronoun, it aids in forming an adjective phrase or clause. THE PREPOSITION 197 Some prepositions are made up of two or three words ; ^as, according tOy on account of, hy means of. These may be called phrase prepositions. Some words are used both as prepositions and as adverbs ; asj since^ above, below, down. The use of the word must determine the part of speech. If it is used as a modifier, it is an adverb ; if to govern a noun or its equivalent, a preposition. Above, below, the rose of snow, TwirCd mith her blushing foe we spread. — Oray. Here, above and below are adverbs modifying the verb spread. In The church rises above the other houses, A cellar was dug below, the house, above and below are prepositions. The words after, since, before, till, and others are used both as prepositions and as conjunctions ; as, He arrived before mid- night ; Before I arrived, he had gone. (See p. 202.) Some words originally present participles are now often used with the force of prepositions ; as, consider- ing, respecting^ regarding, touching. Prepositions sometimes become parts of verbs; as, He hroTce into the house. Sometimes the preposition precedes the verb and is united with it ; as, under-gOy over-take. The effect of joining a preposition to a transitive verb is to make its meaning more exact, so that the preposition is used with a modifying or adverbial tendency. The effect upon an intransitive verb is to make it transitive. (See p. 132.) 198 ETYMOLOGY Our language being nearly destitute of inflections, the relations of words are largely shown by means of prepositions. Great care should be exercised in their selection, so that the exact idea intended shall be con- veyed. Among those that are often misused are the follow- ing : Of J tOy fovy froniy by, withy iriy into, at, ouy unto, untUj off, upon, between, among, without (for except). In, on, at, by, generally imply rest. He lives in the city. He is oT the fair. The mat lies by the door. The dock stands on ihe stairs. To, into, unto, toward, towards, from, imply motion with di- rection. He went to the city. He came into the house. The man is driving towards the river. He comes from the city every day. They got into the carriage and rode in it. Between is used of two objects. Among (or amongst), amid (amidst), of a greater number. There was a generous rivalry between the two boys. Four boys, came forward; he divided the peaches among them. Referring to places, we say, /n New York (city or large town) at Lyons Falls (hamlet or railway station), in Europe, in the State of New York, touched at Dover, arrived at Liverpool (of a vessel on a voyage), boards at the Astor House, he lives on Greene Avenue^ at No. 1076, or at 1076 Greene Avenue, in San Francisco. Of is sometimes ambiguous after nouns derived from transi- tive verbs ; as, The love of our neighbor may mean our love for him, or his love for us. So in the following : / loas greatly in- terested in reading aboiit the discovery of Livingstone. Does this mean Stanley's discovering Livingstone, or a discovery that Livingstone made? Everybody approved of the choice of the president. Did the president choose, or did some one choose him? THE PREPOSITION 199 In all such cases the ambiguity may be avoided by substi- tuting a participial phrase, or a possessive case : The discovery made by Livingstone; The president's choice. B eside, is now used chiefly with the sense of by the side of. Besides means in addition to. He sits beside the weU. Have you any money besides this? Upon should rarely be used except with the accompanying sense of height. We may say, Upon the top of a building, but On the ground, On a table. Upon is also used in the sense of after; as. Upon hearing the news, we sent you word. Off of is extremely inelegant. We should say, He feU off the roof, not off of. ^ Parsing In parsing a preposition it is necessary only to state its object, and the relation which the phrase of which it is a part bears to some other word in the sentence. Exercise 70. — Pick out all the prepositions in the following selections^ name their objects^ and tell whether the elements of the sentence they aid informing are adjective or adverbial phrases and why : J vl. The number of teeth and their form vary greatly in the j difiEetent groups of animals. ' *v/2. Tears are the softening showers which cause the seed of heaven to spring up in the human heart. — Sir Walter Scott. V 3. Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains ; " -- They crowned him long ago On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds, With a diadem of snow. — Byron, ) V^ 200 ETYMOLOGY 4. Ichabod Crane's appetite for the marvelous and his powers of digesting it were equally extraordinary, and had been in- creased by his residence in the spell-bound region of Sleepy Hollow. — Washington Living. 5. Over the wooded northern ridge, Between its houses brown, To the dark tunnel of the bridge The street comes straggling down. — Whittier. 6. Doubtless, to think deeply and clearly in the recess of a cabinet is a fine intellectual demonstration ; but to think with equal depth and equal clearness amid bullets is the most com- plete exercise of the human faculties. — Disraeli. 7. Rats! They fought the dogs and killed the cats, And bit the babies in the cradles, And ate the cheese out of the vats, And licked the soup from the cook's own ladles, Split open the kegs of salted sprats, Made nests inside men's Sunday hats, And even spoiled the women's chats. By drowning their speaking With shrieking and squeaking In fifty different sharps and flats. — Roheii; Brotmiing. 8. It is undeniable that a person seems temporarily to change his nature when he becomes part of an excursion. Whether it is from the elation at the purchase of a day of gayety below the market price, or the escape from personal responsibility under a conductor, or the love of being conspicuous as a part of a sort of organization, the excursionist is not on his ordinary behavior. — C. D, Warner, THE CONJUNCTION 201 THE CONJUNCTION Definition. — A conjunction is a word used to connect parts of sentences. These connected parts may be single words, or they may be phrases or clauses. Classes Conjunctions are divided, according to their use, into two principal classes : 1. Coordinating conjunctions; 2. Subordinating conjunctions. Definition. — A coordinating conjunction is a con- junction used to connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal rank. (a) Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers, and I linger on the shore, And the individual withers, and the world is more and more. — Tennyson, (b) Not only we, that prate Of rights and wrongs, have loved the people weU, And loathed to see them overtaxed; but She did move, and underwent, and overcame. — Tennystm. (c) We grow ourselves Divine by overcoming with mere hope And (with) Tnost prosaic patience. — Mrs, Browning. (d) I had been content to perish, faUing on the foeman^s ground^ When the ranks are rolVd in vapor, and the winds are laid with sound. — Tennyson, 202 ETYMOLOGY In (a) the coordinating conjunctions in blackfaced type connect independent clauses. In (6) they con- nect words having the same grammatical relation. In (c) it connects phrases having the same grammati- cal relation. In {d) it connects dependent clauses having the same grammatical relation. The coordinating conjunctions are divided as follows : (a) Ooptdative, denoting addition ; as, both, and, also, more- over, further, etc. (p) DisjtLnctive, denoting choice or separation ; as, either, or, neitJier, nor, else, otherwise. (c) Adversative, denoting opposition of meaning; as, but, still, yet, notwithstanding, however. (d) Illative, denoting effect or consequence; as, therefore, wherefore, hence, whence, consequently, accordingly, thus, so, so that, then, so then. DEPiNiTioy. — A subordinating conjunction is a conjunction used to connect a subordinate clause with the part of the sentence upon which the clause de- pends. Subordinating conjunctions are classified according to the various relations which they indicate : (a) Time ; as, as, lohile, untU, before, ere, since, after, as soon as, as long as. (b) Eeason or cause ; as, because, for, since, as, whereas, in- asmuch as. (c) Supposition or condition; as, if, provided, sfupposing, un less, except, otherwise, though, notwithstanding, albeit, whether. (d) End or purpose ; as, that, in order that, lest. THE CONJUNCTION 'i^08 (c) The conjunction of comparison, than. The clause intro- duced by tlvan is often partially omitted; as, He can read better than I {can read). He is taller than I (am iail). It was the time when lilies blow. You never miss the water till the well runs dry. He said thai he would be there. In the first sentence, the adjective clause is con- nected with the noun time by means of the subordi- nating conjunction when. In the second sentence, the adverbial clause is connected with the verb miss by means of the subordinating conjunction till. In the third sentence, the noun clause that he would he there is the object of the verb said^ with which it is con- nected by means of the subordinating conjunction that. Conjunctions often occur in pairs ; as. Both — and : Both John and James are coming. Not only — but: He not only reads well but writes well. Either — or: He regarded him as either a Jcnave or a fool. Neither — nor: Heither Jieat nor cold could daunt him. Whether — or: Whether he go or stay, is a m^atter of no con- sequence. Though — yet : Though all men deny thee, yet will not I. Or sometimes introduces an alternative name or synonym ; as, The prime minister, or head of the British Cabinet. The first name is usually followed by a comma. Nor is sometimes equivalent to and not; as, He suspected that all was not right, nor was he deceived (and he was not). 204 BTTMOLOQT Parsing To parse a conjunction it is necessary to tell what elements of the sentence it connects, and the relation that exists between them. From this it may be de- termined whether the conjunction is coordinating or subordinating, and what special signification it ex- presses. Exercise 71. — Pick out the conjunctions in the fol- lowing selections, tell what elements of the sentence each connects, and state whether it is coordinating or sub- ordinating. If the conjunction is coordinating, state the relation that it denotes. If subordinating, state lohether it introduces a noun clause, an adjective clause, or an adverbial . clause, and give the reason for your opinion. 1. Never expect to govern others unless you have learned to govern yourself. 2. A man is shorter when he is walking than when at rest. — 0. W. Holmes. 3. What is twice read is commonly better remembered than what is transcribed. — Johnson. 4. Dreary are the years, when the eye can look no longer With delight on nature, or hope on human kind. — Bryant 5. No man was more foolish when he had not a pen in hig hand, nor more wise when he had. — S. Johnson 07i Goldsmith. THE CONJUNCTION 205 6. One is sometimes tempted to wish that the superlative could be abolished, or its use allowed only to old experts. — 0. TF: Holmes. 7. This is truth the poet sings, That a sorrow's crown of sorrow is remembering happier things. — Tennyson. 8. If coal and the useful metals are found in any region, manufacturing interests will sooner or later be developed. 9. Every individual has a place to fill in the world, and is important in some respect, whether he chooses to be so or not. — Hawthorne, 10. When I had gone half a mile, my opinion of the charac- ter of the pools was unchanged ; never were there such places for trout ; but the trout were out of their places. — C. D, Warner. 11. Neither locks had they to their doors, nor bars to their windows ; But their dwellings were open as day and the hearts of the owners. — Longfellow. 12. Nature has a thousand ways and means of rising above herself; but incomparably the noblest manifestations of her capability of color are in the sunsets among the high clouds. — Buskin. 13. I remember, I remember, The house where I was born. The little window where the sun Came peeping in at morn. — Thomas Hood. 14. On one of those sober and rather melancholy days, in the latter part of autumn, when the shadows of morning and evening almost mingle together, and throw a gloom over the decline of the year, I passed several hours in rambling about Westminster Abbey. There was something congenial to the 206 ETTMOLOQT season in the mournful magnificence of the old pile ; and as I passed its threshold, it seemed like stepping back into regions of antiquity, and losing myself among the shades of former ages. — Washington Irving, Exercise 72. — Combine each of the following groups of sentences into a simple, a complex^ or a compound sentence. Tell the means employed to effect the comMnation. Analyze the resulting sentence. 1. The Hindoos were astonished at the performance of the plow. They painted it. They set it up. They worshiped it. Thus they turned a tool into an idol. Complex : So astonished were the Hindoos ai the performance of the plowy that they painted it, set it up, worshiped it, thus turning a tool into an idol. Compound : Tlie Hindoos were astonished at the performance of the plow; hence they painted it, set it up, and worshiped it, thus turning a tool into an idol. Simple: Astonished at the performance of the plow, the Hindoos painted it, set it up, and worshiped it, thus tuiming a tool into an idol. 2. Christopher Columbus was the most renowned of all discoverers. He was born in the city of Genoa. Genoa is in Italy. 3. When Columbus was a boy, there was a prince of Portu- gal. Don Henrique was his name. He is known to us as Prince Henry the Navigator. 4. Columbus sailed from Spain on the 3d of August, 1492, He had three small vessels. Two of them were without decks, He was more than two months on the voyage. { THE CONJUNCTION 207 5. EaJeigh was one of the most brilliant men at the court of Queen Elizabeth. He was also one of the most ambitious. He certainly was one of the most gifted men of that brilliant time. 6. John Eolf e seems to have been fond of new experiments. He was the same who married Pocahontas. He thought he might grow tobacco in Virginia for the English market. He thought he could do so if the Virginia Indians could grow tobacco for their own use. 7. Manhattan Island was sold to the Dutch by the Indians. On it New York now stands. The price was about twenty-four dollars in trading wares. 8. A maid-servant in Massachusetts was left alone with little children. An Indian tried to enter the house. She drove him away by firing a musket at him and throwing a shovelful of live coals on his head. « 9. Tea was not known in England when the first colonies were settled. Coffee was not known in this country when the first colonies were settled. They became known long afterward. 10. The Middle colonies raised wheat. The colonies on Chesapeake Bay raised tobacco. The Southern colonies raised rice and indigo. The soil of New England was not suited to any agricultural staple of great value. The climate of New England was not suited to any agricultural staple of great value. 11. In New York city and in Philadelphia there were a great many slaves. There were not many in the country regions about these cities. The reason was that wheat was the chief crop. It did not require much hard labor. 12. All the French possessions in America, east of the Mississippi, were ceded to England. A district around New Orleans was excepted. This was by the treaty between Eng- land and France. It was made in 1763. 13. Patrick Henry took the lead in the agitation in Virginia. He was a brilliant speaker. James Otis was the principal orator in Massachusetts. He was an eloquent Boston lawyer. 208 ETYMOLOGY 14. A government was to be established It was to be without a throne. It was to be without an aristocracy. It was to be without castes, orders, or privileges. This govern- ment was not to be a democracy existing and acting within the walls of a single city. It was to be extended over a vast country. That country is of different climates, interests, and habits. 15. I could see persons dressed in glorious habits, with garlands upon their heads. I could see them passing among the trees. I could see them lying down by the sides of the fountains, or resting on beds of flowers. I could hear a con- fused harmony of singing birds, falling waters, human voices, and musical instruments. VI. SYNTAX Definition. — Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the way in which words are joined in sentences. Under the head of Syntax should be considered (1) the elements of the sentence ; (2) the classification of sentences according to the manner in which these elements are arranged ; (3) the four leading principles, Concord, Government, Modification, and Order^ that determine the relations of words in sentences; (4) elliptical sentences; (5) punctuation; and (6) the analysis of sentences into their component elements. For the convenience of pupils we have already treated the elements of the sentence (pp. 29-45), the classification of sentences (pp. 51-63), and the analysis of sentences (pp. 57-66). The four principles that regulate the grammatical union of words in sentences are Concord^ Goyemment, Modification, and Order. CONCORD Definition. — Concord is the agreement in case, gender, number, mode, or tense of two connected words. MAX. sen. ORAM. — 14 209 210 SYNTAX Concord op Subject and Pbbdicatb I. A verb agrees with its subject in number and person ; and the subject of a verb, when a noun or a pronoun, is always in the nominative case. The meaning of the first part of this rule is that a verb must have that grammatical form which shows that it is of the same person and number as its subject; as, All men admire courage. A man admires courage. Thou admiresi all beautiful things, I am to blame, TItey are to blame. The following special cases under this general rule require attention : 1. When a noun in the plural is used to denote a whole, a unit of some sort, as the title of a book, a sum of money, etc. , the verb may be in the singular ; as, Plutarch's Lives is a good book. Five hundred dollars was spent, 2. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives, so as to mean two distinct things, the verb is in the plural ; as, Moral and physical educalion are both necessary. Here educa- tion must be regarded as understood after moral, 3. A collective noun denoting a group of objects regarded as (me whole takes a verb in the singular; but when the noun denotes a group regarded as individuals, it takes a verb in the plural ; as, Tlie government has begun to turn its attention, — Sydney Smith, The assembly of the wicked hawe inclosed me, — Bible. 4. Few, many, most, some, several, the rest, etc., take a verb in the plural ; as, Few of the men were there. Many of the sailors were shipwrecked. None (originally meaning wo one) would seem to require a singular verb, but it has come to be used in both the singular and the plural ; as, Hone of our party was (or were) sick. CONCORD 211 5. When the subject consists of two or more nouns connected by the conjunction and, the verb is in the plural; as The eoenbig and the morning were the first day. To this rule there are several exceptions : (1) If the nouns: are names for the same person ot thing, the verb is in the singular ; as, A laggard in love and a idastard in war was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. — Scott, (2) If the nouns .^e names of things that may be considered as forming one whole'J the verb is in the singular : as, Wherein doth sit the fear and ^read of kings. — Shakespeare. The wheel and axle was out ofrepoi^. (3) When the verb is made to agree with the subject next to it, being mentally supplied with the others, two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and often take a verb in the singular. This may happen in the following cases : (a) When it is desired to ihake one of the subjects emphatic ; as, Both death and I am found eternal. — Milton. To rive what Goth and Turk and Time hath spared. — Byron. (b) When the subject nouns are precefded by each, every, or no; as, Each book and eaeh paper was found in its place. Every hour and every minute is important. No help and no hope comes to the drowning man. (c) When a verb separates its subjects, it agrees with the first ; as. The leader of the band was slain, and aU his men. If the first noun is plural, the verb is plural ; as, The men were slain and their leader also. (d) When a verb is placed before its subject, and the latter is represented by the^^e, such, etc. ; as. Upon this there was a fearful cry from heaven, and (there were) great claps of thunder. — Washington Irving. Such was the intelligence, the gravity, and the self-command of CromwelVs warriors. — Macaulay. When the pronoun it has a forward reference, it has a verb in the singular even when the complement is plural ; as, It is tliey. It was the governor and his brother who were here. 212 SYNTAX 6. When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns, or equivalents of nouns, joined by or, either — or, neither — nor, the verb must be singular. The reason of this rule is that, with or, either — or, the predi- cate is affirmed of only one of the subjects; as, Either Jones r fame, but only for the right. Bead, He strove not for fame, etc. Not only . . . but also. 236 STNTAX They did not only choose him secretary, but also president. Place not only before secretary. Not only . • . but. The Roman nobles not only were obliged to learn the Gfreek language, but to speak it. Not only should come before to learn. Not merely . . . but. They wiU not merely interest children but grovm-up people. Not Tnerdy should precede children. Not mme . . . t/iaw. They seem to me necessary not more to the accuracy of the extracts than of the portrait I seek to give of the writer. Not more should follow accuracy. Both . . . and. The clergyman both spoke eloquently and sincerely. 'Read, both eloquently and sincerely. Either . . . or. The rules are too vague either for discussion or practical use. Read, for either discussion, etc. Neither . . . nor. Her success is neither the result of system nor of strategy. Read, neither of system nor, etc. Exercise 86. — Correct the errors of arrangement in thefoUowing sentences, and give a reason for eaoh change : 1. Homer was not only the maker of a nation, but of a language and a religion. 2. Every composition is fairly liable to criticism both with regard to its design and to its execution. 3. I am neither acquainted with the writer nor his works. 4. He is neither disposed to sanction bloodshed nor deceit. 5. I know not what better description I could give you either of a great captain or a great orator. 6. He not only visited Paris, but Berlin, Vienna, and St Petersburg. ELLIPSIS 237 ELLIPSIS Ellipsis is the omission from a sentence of some word or words necessary to the grammatical con- struction. Ellipsis is permissible only when the omission does not obscure the sense ; or, in other words, when the mind of the reader or the hearer easily supplies the omitted word. The following cases of ellipsis are found : 1. A noun whose meaning is modified by a noun in the pos- sessive case ; as, WIio built St. PauVs (Cathedral) ? 2. The subject of a verb in the imperative mode ; as, Lay (you) not up for yourselves treasures. 3. The participle in the absolute construction; as, His heart and pocket (being) lights he sleeps secure. 4. The relative pronoun used as subject of a verb; as, ^Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view, 5. The relative pronoun used as the object of a verb or of a preposition ; as. The anxiety (that) / underwent was extreme. This is the house (that) / live in, 6. A phrase consisting of a relative pronoun governed by a preposition ; as. This is the way (by which) / came. He left- the day (on which) I arrived. The omitted phrase is generally equivalent to when or where, 7. A personal or demonstrative pronoun used as the antecedent of a relative pronoun; as, (He) who steals my purse, steals trash, I shall follow (him or her) whom I please (to follow). 8. A subject noun or pronoim ; as, (I) thank you, 9 A verb ; as, Whose (is) this irmige and superscription 9 10. An infinitive ; as, Will you sing f I shall try (to sing). 11. The subject, or the predicate, or both, in adverbial clauses ; as, Tlie river is smooth where (it is) deep. He is as tall 238 SYNTAX as you (are tall). He is larger than (he was large) a year ago. He loves me better than (he loves) thee. He loves me better than thou (lovest me). 12. The verb in one of the members of a compound sen- tence ; as^ Though aU men forsake thee, yet wiU not I (forsake thee) . 13. A conditional clause ; as, / should be glad to see you (if you would come). 14. That, introducing a clause ; as, He says (that) lie wiU not come. 15. The object of a verb; as, I knew him well, and every truant knew (him). 16. A preposition ; as, He departed (from) this life. He left (on) this morning. Exercise 87. — Supply the ellipses in the following sentences, and state, the offices performed by the omitted words : 1. Bring me my books. 2. I was at my brother's yesterday. 3. Who did it? I. 4. She loved me for the dangers I had passed. 5. The property I possess is but small. 6. This done, proceed with your story. 7. This truth is better expressed by Solomon than him. 8. Better be with the dead. 9. He entered, hat in hand, and sat down. 10. It is strange you did not discover it. 11. 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. 12. Is this the kind of book you want ? 13. No man I know would suit you better. 14. The moment I saw him I recognized him. 15. Off with the traitor's head, and rear it in the place your father stands. ELLIPSIS 289 16. Whom he would he chose for his counselors. 17. He was busy while here. 18. I get as much work as I want. 19. They are as cunning as fierce. 20. Though you accept the invitation, I will not. 21. Come what may, I will not submit. 22. I would accept such an offer. 23. He knows the boy as well as I. 24. He knows the boy as well as me. 25. I know no better man than he. Exercise 88. — Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason for each change. To de- tect the errors, examine the concord (1) of subjects and verbs, (2) of adjectives and nouns, (3) of pronouns and antecedents, (4) of subjects and complements, (5) of words in apposition, and (6) of tenses; (7) the sequences of tenses ; (8) the government of pronouns ; (9) the use of adjective and adverbial modifiers ; and the location (10) of adjective modifiers, (11) of adverbial modifiers, and (12) of correlatives. 1. Among the boys were John with his little brother. 2. I was sure it was him. 3. Whom do you think visited me yesterday ? 4. I told him that he had ought to have come himself. 5. One finds it very easy to excuse his own faults. 6. The teacher said that cold always made water visible. 7. Neither Mary nor any one of her companions were to blame. 8. Coming into the room suddenly, not a sound could be heard. 9. He would have given you the book if you wanted it. 240 SYNTAX 10. I have only been there once, but was pleased with everything. 11. Us boys would like you to have seen our camp. 12. I saw a woman that I took to be she. 13. Will I close the window now ? 14. The lecturer spoke to my brother and I after the meeting. 15. Every flower and every leaf .are glistening with dew. 16. I was afraid that I should have missed the train. 17. Each of the pupils are responsible for their own conduct. 18. We thought it to be he. 19. The carriage stopped at the small gate which led by a short gravel walk to the house amidst the nods and smiles of the whole party. 20. I can not find no more errors. 21. Come quick or you will miss the train. 22. This is the best work that I ever have, or ever can do. 23. Have you seen my cousin to-day, she who was here yesterday ? 24. Gold is more precious than any metaL 25. It is real warm to-day. 2^, The doctor and lawyer are here. 27. The first and last page are interesting. 28. Do you like these sort of people ? 29. We don't like to appear critical, but it don't seem right to let this pass. RULES FOR CAPITALS 1. Begin vrith a capital the first vrord of every sentence. 2. Begin vrith a capital the first vrord of every line of poetry. 3. Begin with a capital every proper noun and every proper adjective. 4. Begin with a capital every name or title of the Deity, and every pronoun referring to the Deity, if this reference would not otherwise be clear. Thou that hearest prayer. BULE8 FOB CAPITALS 241 5. T77iite the pronoun / and the inter] eotion with capitals. 6. Begin with capitals the names of the days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays. 7. Begin with a capital every title of honor or respect. 8. Begin with capitals the names of points of the compass when they denote sections of a country. Gold is found in the great Northwest. 9. Begin with a capital every word that denotes an important epoch or event of history. The Civil War lasted four years. 10. Begin with a capital the name of anything personified. Then Peace shall smile upon us, and Plenty abide among us. 11. Begin with a capital the name of every religious denomi- nation. 12. Begin with a capital every direct quotation. The first word of an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter, unless it requires a capital by the operation of some other rul& Direct. — He quoted the maxim, "Honesty is the best policy." Indirect. — He reminded us that honesty is the best policy. ITALICS, SMALL CAPITALS, Etc. The letters used in ordinary printing are called Roraan, because they were those used in writing the Latin language. If we desire to call particular atten- tion to a word, we may print it in italic characters ; if to make it very emphatic, in small capitals ; and if to make it still more emphatic, in LARGE CAPI- TALS. MAX. sen. GRAM. — 16 242 SYNTAX 1. Italics may be used for words that we desire to make emphatic, particularly if two or more words are placed in contrast ; as, Amongst the arts connected with the elegancies of social life, in a degree which nobody denies, is the art of conversa- tion ; but in a degree which almost everybody denies, if one may judge by their neglect of its simplest rules, this same art is not less connected with the uses of social life. — De Qidncey, Conversation. It is well to be very sparing in the use of italics. Their frequent employment is generally the mark of a weak thinker and inexperienced writer. 2. Words borrowed from another language are generally, and the names of newspapers, magazines, and books, sometimes, printed in italics; as, I prefer to be owned as sound and solvent, and my word as good as my bond, and to be what can not be skipped, or dissi- pated, or undermined, to all the Mat in the imiverse. — Emerson, Illusions. Robinson Crusoe, which is a fairy tale to the child, a book of adventure to the young, is a work on social philosophy to the mature. It is a picture of civilization. — Frederic Harrison, The Choice of Books. It is also quite usual to write the names of books and periodicals within quotation marks. In manuscript, italics are indicated by a single line drawn underneath a word ; small capitals, by two lines; LARGE CAPITALS, by three lines. BULE8 FOR PUNCTUATION 243 RULES FOR PUNCTUATION I. The Comma 1. A subject which is, or which containB, a olaiuie, is separ rated from the predicate by a comma. That gymnastic training is good for boys, is clear. 2. "Words in a series should be separated from one another by commas, unless all the conjunctions are expressed. Poetry, music, and painting are fine arts. 3. VThen words connected by a conjunction follow in sue* cessive pairs, a comma should be inserted after each pair. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration. 4. A noun, a phrase, or a clause in apposition, unless it is closely connected with the word it modifies, should be set off by commas. Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles, preached at Athens. 5. An appositive adjective or adjective phrase is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma or commas. General Wolfe, wounded and dying, learned of his great victory. 6. An adverbial phrase preceding the verb and its subject is usually followed by a comma. Beyond the shadow of the ship, I watched the water snakes. 7. An adverbial phrase coming between the subject and the verb, or'between the parts of the predicate, is set off by commas. %m soldier, from force of habit, obeys. 232 SYNTAX 2. An adverb modifying the meaning of a transitire verb ^nerally precedes it, on account of the object following ; but, in compound tenses, the adverb comes after the first auxiliary if the verb is in the active voice, and next to the principal verb if it is in the passive voice ; as. The troops bravely stormed the fortress. Learning has always elicited respect. He will certainly have finished before you arrive. The problem cari be easily solved. When the object of a transitive verb is short, the ad- verb is sometimes placed after the object ; as, I wrote my com- position yesterday. When the meaning of the object is modi- fied by a phrase or a clause, an adverbial modifier is usually placed after the verb ; as. He read with great care the book thaJt I gave him. 3. When an adverb of time and an adverb of manner modify the meaning of the same verb, the adverb of time pre- cedes the verb, and that of manner follows it ; as, We never suffer willingly. 4. Adverbial phrases usually follow the same rules as ad- verbs with regard to position. 5. Adverbial clauses of time, place, or condition may pre cede or follow the verb in the principal clause; but, as a general rule, they should precede ; as. When summer comeSf the days are longer. If you wish it, I will accompany you. 6. Adverbial clauses of manner are generally placed before the principal clause, when the correlatives as — so are both ex- pressed; but when so is omitted, the principal clause comes first ; as. As the sun breaks through the darkest clouds, so honor peereth through the meanest habit. Honor peereth through the meanest habit, as the sun breaks through the darkest clouds. 7. Two or more phrases or clauses modifying the meaning of the same verb may be placed, one before, the other after, the vjerb ; as, JIfter a little practice he will speak with greater ease. If you will allow me^ I shall assist you when I have fin* ished my lesson. ORDER OF WORDS 233 Caution 1. Care should be taken to place the word only immediately before the word whose meaning it modifies. Also solely, eqrmUy, at least, at any rate. By the insertion of only, the sentence, / ^poke a few words, may be made to give three different meanings : (a) Chdy I spoke a few tvords. I »pdke; no one else did. (b) I only spoke a few words. I spoke; I did nothing else. (c) I spoke only a few words. My speech was brief At the end of a sentence only has a disparaging meaning; as, He gave a dime only. With a noun or a pronoun it is often advisable to use alone instead of 07ily; as, He alone saw us. If alone followed v^, the meaning would be that he saw us and no others. Caution 2. The negative adverb not may, if wrongly placed, impart to a sentence a meaning quite different from that in- tended. For Lady Clare was not happy because she was beloved, but because, etc., we should read, was happy, not because. Caution 3. The adverbs ever, never, scarcely ever, etc., are often misplaced; as. We never remember to have seen a more beautiful spot. We should say. We can not remember to have ever seen, etc. Caution 4. Where there are two or more verbs in a sen- tence, special care should be taken to place adverbial phrases and clauses close to the words whose meanings they modify. He blew out his brains after bidding his wife good-by with a gun. Read, After bidding his wife good-by, he blew, etc. Tou may read through the book I bought yesterday in half an hour. Place in half an hour before through, or you. Caution 6. It is common to insert an adverb between to and the infinitive ; as, to bravely die. This construction is con- trary to the best usage, and is objectionable because of the identity in sound between to bravely and too bravely. 284 SYNTAX Exercise 85. — Correct the errors of arrangement in the following sentences, and give a reason for each change: 1. Several men died in the ship of fever. 2. The witness was ordered to withdraw in consequence of being intoxicated by order of the court. 3. A clever magistrate would see whether a witness was deliberately lying a great deal better than a stupid jury. 4. So correct is their ear that they can reproduce an air after once hearing it with the most perfect exactness. • 5. We complimented them upon discussing matters which were in some countries found irritating in so calm a way. 6. It troubles the brains of children to be suddenly roused in a morning, and to be snatched away from sleep, wherein they are much deeper plunged than men, with haste and violence. 7. The carriage stopped at the small gate which led by a short gravel walk to the house amidst the nods and smiles of the whole party. 8. He always read Lord Byron's writings as soon as they were published with great avidity. 9. They followed the advance of the courageous party step by step through telescopes. 10. The convict ship was bearing him to expiate his crimes against the laws of his country in another hemisphere. 11. I found what a poor superficial creature I was afterward. 12. He was driving away from the church where he had been married in a coach and six. 13. Fights frequently ensue in consequence, but are gener- ally put a stop to before any material damage is done by the interference of friends. 14. . Nobler and loftier emotions lit up the hearts of men who had only sacrifices to make with a generous enthusiasm. 16. People ceased to wonder by degrees. OBDER OF WORDS 235 16. One day the sparrow did not perform certain tricks which he had taught it to his satisfaction. 17. Few people learn anything that is worth learning easily. 18. I never remember to have felt an event more deepl}^ than his death. 19. I have only written three lines, XII. The preposition generally precedes its ob- ject ; as, Have a place for everything. The preposition, however, is often separated from a relative pronoun which it governs, and is then thrown to the end of the clause or sentence. Many modern grammarians forbid this construction, but it is common with the best writers ; as. The world is too well bred to shock authors with a truth which generally their booksellers are the first that inform them of, — Pope. ' For I must use the freedom I was bom with* -— Massinger. The preposition is sometimes separated from its object in order to connect another preposition with the same noun ; as, He voted first wiih^ and afterwards against ^ the majority. This construction, while not wrong, is to be avoided. XIII. When two words are used correlatively, each member of the pair should come before the same part of speech. The following are the most important : Not . . . but. The wise teacher should not aim to repi'ess, but to encouro/ge, his pupils. Read, aim not to repress. Not ... but only. He did not strive for fame, but only for the right, Bead, He strove not for fame, etc. Not only , . , but also. 236 BTNTAX They did not only choose him secretary, hut cUso president. Place not only before secretary. Not only . • . but. The Roman nobles not only were obliged to learn the Cheek language, but to speak it. Not only should come before to learn. Not merely . . . bvi. They will not merely interest children hit grownrup people. Not merely should precede children. Not mme • • • than. They seem to me necessary not more to the accuracy of the extracts than of the portrait I seek to give of the writer. Not more should follow accurojcy. Both • • • and. The clergyman both spoke eloquently and sincerely. Read, both eloquently and sincerely. Either . . . or. The rules are too vague either for discussion or practical use. Read, for either discussion, etc. Neither . . . nor. Her success is neither the result of system nor of strategy. Read, neither of system nor, etc. Exercise 86. — Correct the errors of arrangement in thefollowing sentences, and give a reason for each change : 1. Homer was not only the maker of a nation, but of a language and a religion, 2. Every composition is fairly liable to criticism both with regard to its design and to its execution. 3. I am neither acquainted with the writer nor his works. 4. He is neither disposed to sanction bloodshed nor deceit. 5. I know not what better description I could give you either of a great captain or a great orator. 6. He not only visited Paris, but Berlin, Vienna, and St Petersburg. ELLIPSIS 237 ELLIPSIS Ellipsis is the omission from a sentence of some word or words necessary to the grammatical con- struction. Ellipsis is permissible only when the omission does not obscure the sense ; or, in other words^ when the mind of the reader or the hearer easily supplies the omitted word. The following cases of ellipsis are found : 1. A noun whose meaning is modified by a noun in the pos- sessive case ; as, Who built St. PauVs (Cathedral) ? 2. The subject of a verb in the imperative mode ; as^ Lay (you) not up for yourselves treasures, 3. The participle in the absolute construction; as, His heart and pocket (being) lights he sleeps secure, 4. The relative pronoun used as subject of a verb; as, 'Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view. 5. The relative pronoun used as the object of a verb or of a preposition ; as, The anxiety (that) I underwent was extreme. This is the house (that) I live in. 6. A phrase consisting of a relative pronoun governed by a preposition ; as. This is the way (by which) I came. He left the day (on which) I arrived. The omitted phrase is generall}^ equivalent to when or where. 7. A personal or demonstrative pronoun used as the antecedent of a relative pronoun; as, (He) who steals my purse, steals trash. I shall follow (him or her) whom I please (to follow). 8. A subject noun or pronoun ; as, (I) thaiik you. 9 A verb; as, Whose (is) this irmige and superscription? 10. An infinitive ; as, Will you sing ? I shall try (to sing). 11. The subject, or the predicate, or both, in adverbial clauses ; as, Tfie river is smooth where (it is) deep. He is as tall 248 SYNTAX 2. When a vowel constitutes a syllable in the middle of a word, put it in the first line, thus: sepa-rate, not sep-arate; particu-lar, not partic-ular; exceptions are words ending in -able or -ible, which should carry the vowel into the second line. 3. Do not divide a word so as to carry over a syllable of only two letters to the next line. 4. Do not divide the last word at the bottom of a page. Quotation Marks [" "] are used To Bhovr that a paa8a:ge ^vsui written or spoken by some other person exactly as given. " Come in," he said, " and tell us all about your journey." A quotation occuning within another quotation should be inclosed within single quotation marks. He replied, " I thought I heard you say, 'Come in.' " The /ndex [li;^^] is used To call attention to a passage of special importance, or to indi- cate direction. • Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well. The Paragraph [IT] is used To denote the beginning of a new topic. The Caret [ A ]ls used To show^ the omission of letters or words in ^Tritilng. u not Bea tiful. He was at home. A A The Asterisk [*], the Dagger [t], the Double Dagger [t], the Section [§], and the Parallels [||], are used To refer to notes in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. RULES FOR PUNCTUATION 249 Exercise 89. — In accordance with the rules given dbovcy punctuate the following sentences and use capitals where they are needed : 1. that every sertence every pamgraph and every whole composition should have oneness or unity is a principle that rhetoric teaches to secure unity in sentences is extremely important yet it is not an easy thing to do the following is a good rule for young writers have for each sentence one main thought and only one express it and then put the period 2. there are two forms of quotation namely the direct and the indirect in the sentence longfellow said art is long and time is fleeting the words of the writer are given exactly as they were written in the sentence brutus said that he would rather be a dog than such a roman we have the words of one person as reported by another 3. the quotation in this paragraph is taken from the writings of Shakespeare the greatest of english poets do you see that it furnishes an excellent illustration of climax what a piece of work is man how noble in reason how infinite in faculty in form and moving how express and admirable in action how like an angel in apprehension how like a god 4. good writers avoid pleonasm or the expression of some part of their meaning more than once this construction is however sometimes used in poetry to lend force to the expres- sion as the deck it was their field of fame can you find a similar construction in these lines from the wreck of the hesperus the skipper he stood beside the helm his pipe was in his mouth and he watched how the veering flaw did blow the smoke now west now south. 5. truth crushed to earth shall rise again the eternal years of god are hers but error wounded writhes in pain and dies among his worshipers — hryant 250 SYNTAX & i know not where his islands lift their fronded palms in air i only know i can not drift beyond his love and care — whittier 7. the wise will determine from the gravity of the case the irritable from sensibility to oppression the high minded from disdain and indignation at abusive power in unworthy hands the brave and bold from the love of honorable danger in a generous cause but with or without right a revolution will be the very last resource of the thinking and the good 8. know then this truth enough for man to know virtue alone is happiness below 9. truth is fair and artless simple and sincere uniform and consistent 10. o sohrab an unquiet heart is thine 11. the table stood before him charged with food a side of roasted sheep and cakes of bread and dark green melons 12. as gen. southard was a soldier in the civil war we have invited him to take part in our fourth of July exercises which will be held in the elm street methodist church next Wednesday morning VII. GENERAL REVIEW ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX I. The Sentence 1. Classification Use Form 2. Analysis Subject and predicate Subject Word Phrase Clause Verb Complements Words Phrases Clauses Supplement Modifiers Words Phrases Clauses Connectives Independent elements 261 252 GENERAL REVIEW II. Word Elements 1. Classification 2. Inflection 3. Syntax III. Phrase Elements 1. Classification 2. Syntax IV. Clause Elements 1. Classification 2. Syntax The outline given above may be used for topical recitations or for a systematic review of the whole subject of English grammar. The student should re- cite without the help of questions from the teacher. With the help of the Index, he should refer, when necessary, to topics and explanations in the text; and he should illustrate his statements with words, phrases, and sentences taken from the selections given below. The recitation might proceed as follows : Model. — Sentences are classified according to use and according to form. The kinds of sentences classi- fied according to use are : declarative, interrogative, and imperative. A declarative sentence is a sentence used to state or declare something. Surely^ if ever any poet might have equaled himself with legislators on this ground^ it ivas Burns^ is a declarative sentence. An interrogative sentence is a sentence, etc. ETYMOLOGY AND 8YNTAX , 253 1. "Let me make the songs of a people/' said Fletcher, " and you shall make its laws.'' Surely, if ever any poet might have equaled himself with legislators on this ground, it was Bums. His songs are already part of the mother tongue, not of Scotland only, but of Britain, and of the millions that iu all ends of the earth speak a British language. In hut and hall, as the heart unfolds itself in many-colored joy and woe of existence, the name, the voice of that joy and that woe, is the name and voice that Bums has given them. Strictly speaking, perhaps no British man has so deeply affected the thoughts and feelings of so many men, as this solitary and altogether private individual, with means apparently the hum- blest. — Carlyle, 2. Upward went the pilgrims of the Great Carbuncle, now treading upon the tops and thickly interwoven branches of dwarf pines, which, by the growth of centuries, though mossy with age, had barely reached three feet in altitude. Next, they came to masses and fragments of naked rock heaped confusedly together, like a cairn reared by giants in memory of a giant chief. In this bleak realm of upper air nothing breathed, nothing grew ; there was no light but was concen- trated in their two hearts ; they had climbed so high that Na- ture herself seemed no longer to keep them company. She lingered beneath them, within the verge of the forest trees, and sent a farewell glance after her children as they strayed where her own green footprints had never been. — Hawthorne 3. "0 Tiber! father Tiber! To whom the Eomans pray, A Eoman's life, a Koman's arms. Take thou in charge this day ! " So he spake, and speaking, sheathed The good sword by his side, And with his harness on his back Plunged headlong in the tide. — Macaulay 254 GENERAL REVIEW 4, Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway, And fools who came to scoff, remained to pray. The service passed, around the pious man, With steady zeal, each honest rustic ran ; Even children followed, with endearing wile, And plucked his gown, to share the good man's smile. His ready smile a parent's warmth exprest, Their welfare pleased him, and their cares distrest ; To them his heart, his love, his griefs, were given. But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven : As some tall cliff that lifts its awful form. Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the stbrm, Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread, Eternal sunshine settles on its head. — Ooldamith. 5. As plants convert the minerals into food for animals, so each man converts some raw material in nature to human use. The inventors of fire, electricity, magnetism, iron, lead, glass, linen, silk, cotton ; the makers of tools ; the inventor of deci- mal notation; the geometer; the engineer; the musician, — severally make an easy way for all, through unknown and im- possible confusions. — Emerson. Remember March, the ides of March remember: Did not great Julius bleed for justice' sake ? What villain touched his body,. that did stab, And not for justice ? What, shall one of us, That struck the foremost man of all this world But for supporting robbers, shall we now Contaminate our fingers with base bribes. And sell the mighty space of our large honors For so much trash as may be grasped thus ? — Shakespeare, ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 256 COMMON ERRORS IN SPEECH CLASSIFIED I. Nouns. 1. A proper noun begun with a small letter : He lives in boston, 2. Incorrect form to express plural number : He shot two doers. 3. Incorrect form to express masculine or femi- nine gender : She was a wizard. 4. Incorrect form of the possessive case : Thjuo boy's heads and two s hoops' heads, 5. Use of the objective case for the possessive : / was sorry to hear of John doing wrong. II. Pronouns. 1. Pronoun / written with a small letter : Where shall i go f 2. Pronoun / placed incorrectly : / and my sister will attend the concert, 3. Use of compound personal pronoun for sim- ple personal pronoun : John and mysolf will do it. 266 GENERAL REVIEW 4. Incorrect choice of relative pronoun : I have a dog who harks at nighi. This is the per- son which did the wrong. This is the house what Jack built, Columbus, thai discovered America, was an Italian. 6. Lack of concord between pronoun and an- tecedent : Every one of the pupils lost their books, 6. Incorrect case form : T%e book is yourn^ hern^ or hisn, I recognize it's cover. 7. Use of nominative case for objective : CHve it to Kate and I. I knew it to be she. 8. Use of objective case for nominative : Him and me are brothers. Whom do you suppose she is 9 It was her, 9. Use of objective case for possessive : There is no chance of me being chosen. 10. Pleonastic use : John, he tried, and then Mary, she tried. 11. Ambiguous use : ITie man told his son to take his coat to the taUor^s. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 257 III. Verbs and Verbals. 1. Use of the indicative mode for the subjunc- tive: / wish I was you. 2. Use of the subjunctive mode for the indica- tive: If the cavern were of artificial construction, corir sideraJble pains had been taken to make it look natural, 3. Use of incorrect form to express tense : I done it. He seen it. She come late yesterday. I see him last week. The hoy has went hom£. My hands were froze. He ieached me all 1 know. I ain't seen it. 4. Error in sequence of tenses : / meant, when first I came, to have bought all Paris. He did not know that mei^cury was a metal. 5. Lack of agreement between verb and sub- ject: Was you glad to see us f Neither he nor she have ever been there. It don^t cost much. 6. Use of incorrect forms of principal parts of certain verbs; e.g. sit and lie. The hen sets on the eggs. The dress sets well. Tlie book lays on the table. It laid there yes" terday. It ha>s laid there all week. •nJlX. 8CH. GRAM. — 17 268 GENERAL REVIEW 7. Incorrect use of shcdl^ willy should^ and would : 1 will he pleased to see you, I would like to see you to-morrow, 8. Use of adjective participle without modi- fied word : Coming into the room, a great noise was heard. 9. Placing of adverb between to and the infini- tive: He tried to thoroughly understand the case. IV. Adjectives. 1. Omission of article : TJie noun and pronoun are inflected. 2. Use of superfluous article : / do not like this kind of a sitory, 3. Use of a for an, and an for a : This is an universal cuMom, I should like a apple. 4. Use of adverb for predicate adjective : She looks nicely. 5. Lack of concord between certain adjectives and the words they modify : I do not like these kind of grapes. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 269* 6. Incorrect forms of comparison : His ways have become evilet, 7. Use of comparative form not accompanied by certain necessary words : He is shorter than any hoy in his dass, (Other should be inserted before boy,) 8. Use of superlative form accompanied by certain superfluous words : T%is is of all others the most important, (Others is superfluous.) 9. Use of double comparative or superlative- forms : She is more kinder than you. 10. Incorrect placing of adjective phrases and clauses : The mariner shot the bird with an unfeeling heart. , Adverbs. 1. Use of adjective for adverb : She si7igs real well. 2. Incorrect use of double negatives : / can not go no faster. 3. Incorrect placing of adverbs and of adverbial phrases and clauses : I only came yesterday, and I go to-day. 260 GENERAL REVIEW VI. Prepositions. 1. Incorrect choice of prepositions : I walked from the hall in the room. Divide this between the three boys. I was to New York to-day. 2. Omission of preposition : Sh£ is an example of what a person in good heaUh is capable, (Of should be supplied at the end.) 3. Use of a superfluous preposition : The book in which the story is in is mine. VII. Conjunctions. 1. Incorrect choice of conjunctions ; especially like for as, and as for that : I can not write like you do. I don't know as I can go, 2. Incorrect choice of correlatives: Neither this or that will do. 3. Use of a superfluous conjunction : / have no doubt but that he will come. Tliis is a fine pictxtre and which all will admire. 4. Incorrect placing of correlatives : He is neither disposed to sanction bloodshed deceit. (Place neither before bloodshed.) ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 261 Exercise 90. — Correct the errors in the foUoioing sentences^ and give a reason for each correction: 1. He sent those whom he thought would do the work, 2. He said that heat always caused metals to expand. 3. Neither he nor any one of his friends were there to meet me. 4. Rowing on the lake, a storm came up suddenly. 5. He would have gone if you desired. 6. No braver a man than he ever died for his country. 7. This place is the pleasantest of any other spot in tl^is section of the country. 8. Whom do you think came to see me to-day ? 9. These orders, being illegal, they are generally communis Gated orally. 10. Anna told her sister that her dress was torn, but she said that she would mend it, 11. We hear that it was Mr. A.'s horse, and not himself^ who was hurt to-day. 12. A short time ago a letter appeared in your paper from myself. 13. Those sort of persons always succeed. 14. The dog sprang from the bank in the water. 15. The man of whom I spoke to you about is at the door. 16. I was not to school all last week. 17. The boys who waste their time like John does will suf- fer like he does. 18. This is a true saying, and which all will accept. 19. We can not excuse him being late. 20. I and the other pupils were dismissed early to-day. 21. He would not listen to no excuse. 22. The boy has grown quite tall, and he now looks real strong. 23. This is the most coolest spot we can find. 24. Will each of the boys bring their papers to me ? 262 GENERAL REVIEW 25. This paper is hep's. 26. The black and white horse are sold. 27. My friend, Mr. A., is more talented than any man I know. 28. If I was you I would not act so. 29. He give me the book yesterday. 30. My picture was took last week. 31. She tried to learn me my lesson. 32. I intended to have seen you when you called. 33. It don't sound right to me. 34. The example not only seems easy, but also short. 35. The teacher wants you and I to remain. 36. How long have these leaves laid here ? 37. Will i see you tomorrow ? 38. Among the children were Julia with her little sister Mary. 39. He was able to easily adjust the stand. 40. This is the study what I dislike most VIII. PROSODY Prosody is that part of grammar which treats of the rules that govern verse. Verse, as distinguished from prose, is the name given to the peculiar structure of language employed •in poetry. The word verse is derived from the stem vers = turn, and is so called because when the writer has written a certain num- ber of syllables he turns, as it were, and commences a new line. Originally, the word was applied only to a line of poetry. It is now, however, used to designate the general structure of poetry, as well as a group of lines of poetry, and even one of the subdivisions of a chapter in the Bible. The chief distinction between verse and prose is that the former is marked by the recurrence, at regu- lar intervals, of syllables that must be accented by the voice in reading. This regular recurrence of accent is called rhythm. The word rhythm comes from a Greek word, meaning meas- ured motion. A foot is a group of two or three syllables upon one of which the accent, or stress of the voice, falls in reading. 264 PROSODY Meter, or measure, is determined by the nimiber and kind of feet in a line. Thus : I sprang I to the stii|rup, and J6|ris and h4, I gal|loped, Dirck g^|loped, we g^l [loped all thr^e. — JR. Brovming, Rhythm is essential to verse. Rime, on the other hand, is not essential, but is very generally used as an additional ornament. Rime is usually spelled rhyme, but the older spelling (rime), " which is etymologically preferable, is coming into use again." — Webster's International Dictionary, Rime consists in the similarity of sound in the final syllable or syllables of two or more words. Three things are essential to a perfect rime : 1. The vowel sounds of the riming syllables, and, if the vowels are followed by consonants, the con- sonant soimds, must be the same ; as, try and cry^ light and sprite. Identity of sound, not of letters, is required. Lose and close do not rime. 2. The consonant sounds preceding the vowels must be different ; as, way and lay^ sour and power. 3. Similarity of accent; as, sing ?iJid fling. Sing- ing ^nd fling do not rime. In single rimes^ one syllable rimes with another; as, hand and hand. In double rimes, two syllables rime with two other syllables ; as, crying and trying. In triple rimes, three syllables rime with three other syllables. In double and triple rimes, the first rim- PROSODY 265 ing syllables must conform to the rules for single rimes; the other syllables should be identical in sound. Riming syllables usually occur at the ends of lines ; the last syllable of a line may, however, be made to rime with one in the middle of the line ; as, Ho, trumpets, sound a war-note ! Ho, lictors, clear the way! The knights will ride, in all their pride, Along the streets today, — Macaulay. Lines whose final syllables rime should have the same indention; that is, should be commenced, in writing or printing, at an equal distance from the margin. Thus : Ring out the old, ring in the new, Ring, happy bells, across the snow : The year is going, let him go ; Rirtg out the false, ring in the true. — Tennyson. A couplet is composed of two consecutive lines the final syllables of which rime. A triplet is composed of three such lines. In blank verse there is rhythm, but not rime ; as, Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought Death into the world, and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heav'nly Muse. 266 PBOSODT A stanza is a regularly recurring group of lines. For examples of stanzas, see Longfellow's " Psalm of Life " and " Village Blacksmith." To scan a line is to mark the feet and tell what kind they are. KINDS OF FEET Feet are divided into dissyllabic and trisyllabic. The dissyllabic feet are the iambus and the trochee. In classical poetry a third dissyllabic foot, called the spondee, consisting of two long syllables, is used. An iambus is a dissyllabic foot accented on the second syllable; as, adore. Some prefer to use the technical terms of classical poetry and to speak of an unaccented syllable as sJiort [marked thus (w)], and of an accented syllable as long [marked thus (— )]. A trochee is a dissyllabic foot accented on the first syllable ; as, rosy {~~ ^). The word comes from the Greek trochoSy a running, and the foot is so called from the tripping, sprightly movement it im- parts to the verse. The trisyllabic feet are the anapest, the dactyl, and the amphibrach. The anapest is a trisyllabic foot, accented on the third syllable; as, intercede (^^""). The anapest (ana = back, and paistos = struck) is so called because it is the reverse of the dactyl. DISSYLLABIC VERSE 267 The dactyl is a trisyllabic foot accented on the first syllable; as, holiness (""^^). The dactyl (Greek daktylos, a finger) is so called, because;, like a finger, it has one long joint and two short joints. The amphibrach is a trisyllabic foot, having the accent on the middle syllable ; as coeval ( ^— ^ ). The amphibrach (amphi = on both sides, and brachys =^ short) is so called because there is an unaccented syllable on each side of an accented syllable. Verses are classified according to the kind of foot and the number of feet occurring in each line. Ac- cording to the kind of foot, verse may be iambic^ trochaic, anapestic, dactylic, or amphibrachic. Accord- ing to the number of feet, a verse is monometer, if of one foot ; dimeter, if of two feet ; trimeter, if of three feet ; tetrameter, if of four feet ; pentameter y if of five feet ; and hexameter, if of six feet. If a verse has a syllable more than the regular measure, it is called hypermeter ; if a syllable less, cataUctic. DISSYLLABIC VERSE Iambic Measubbs In iambic measures the accents generally fall on the eveti syllables, the second, foiurth, etc. (a) Lines in Iambic Monometer are rarely found. (b) Iambic Dimeter With. r^v|ished dars The m6n|arch h^ars. — Dryden. 266 GENERAL REVIEW 4. Incorrect choice of relative pronoun : I have a dog who barks at night. This is the per- son which did the wrong. This is the house what Jack huUt Columbus, thai discovered America, was an Italian. 6. Lack of concord between pronoun and an- tecedent : Every one of the pupils lost their books. 6. Incorrect case form : ITie book is /ourn, hern, or hisn. I recognize it's cover. 7. Use of nominative case for objective : CHve it to Kaie and I, J knew it to be she. 8. Use of objective case for nominative : Him and me are brothers. Whom do you suppose she is ? It was her. 9. Use of objective case for possessive : There is no chance of me being chosen. 10. Pleonastic use : John, he tried, and then Mary, she tried. 11. Ambiguous use : JTie man told his son to take his coat to the tailor^s. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 257 III. Verbs and Verbals. 1. Use of the indicative mode for the subjunc- tive: / wish I was you. 2. Use of the subjunctive mode for the indica- tive: If the cavern were of artificial construction, con- siderable pains had been taken to make it look natural, 3. Use of incorrect form to express tense : I done it. He seen it. She come late yesterday. I see him last week. The boy ha^ went home. My hands were froze. He ieached me all 1 know. I ain't seen it. 4. Error in sequence of tenses : I meant, when first I came, to haife bought all Paris, He did not know that mercury was a metal. 5. Lack of agreement between verb and sub- ject : Was you glad to see us 9 Neither he nor she haife ever been there. It don^t cost much. 6. Use of incorrect forms of principal parts of certain verbs; e.g. sit and lie. The hen sets on the eggs. The dress sets well, Tlie book fays on the table. It laid there yes- terday. It has laid there all week. '^kH. 8CH. ORAM. — 17 258 GENERAL REVIEW 7. Incorrect use of shdllj vrUl, should^ and would : 1 will he pleased to see you, I would like to see you to-morrow. 8. Use of adjective participle without modi- fied word : Coming into the room, a great noise was heard. 9. Placing of adverb between to and the infini- tive: He tried to thoroughly understand the case. IV. Adjectives. 1. Omission of article : Tlie noun and pronoun are inflected. 2. Use of superfluous article : / do not like this kind of a story. 3. Use of a for an, and a7i for a : This is an universal custom. I should like a apple, 4. Use of adverb for predicate adjective : She looks nicely. 5. Lack of concord between certain adjectives and the words they modify : I do not like these kind of grapes. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 26^' 6. Incorrect forms of comparison : His ways have become e¥iler. 7. Use of comparative form not accompanied by certain necessary words : He 18 shorter than any boy in his class. (Other should be inserted before boy.) 8. Use of superlative form accompanied by certain superfluous words : This is of all others the most important. (Others- is superfluous.) 9. Use of double comparative or superlative- forms : She is more kinder than you. 10. Incorrect placing of adjective phrases and clauses : The mariner shot the bird with an unfeeling heart. . Adverbs. 1. Use of adjective for adverb : She si7igs real well. 2. Incorrect use of double negatives: / can not go no faster. 3. Incorrect placing of adverbs and of adverbial phrases and clauses : I only came yesterday, and I go to-day. 260 GENERAL REVIEW VI. Prepositions. 1. Incorrect choice of prepositions : / walked from the hall in the room. Divide this between the three hoys. I was to New York to-day, 2. Omission of preposition : She is an example of what a person in good health is capable. {Of should be supplied at the end.) 3. Use of a superfluous preposition : The book in which the story is in is mine. VII. Conjunctions. 1. Incorrect choice of conjunctions ; especially like for as, and as for that : I can not write /ike you do. I donH know as I can go. 2. Incorrect choice of correlatives : Neither this or that will do. 3. Use of a superfluous conjunction : / have no doubt but that he will coTne. This is a fine picture and which all will admire* 4. Incorrect placing of correlatives : He is neither disposed to sanction bloodshed deceit. (Place neither before bloodshed.) ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 261 Exercise 90. — Correct the errors in the folloioing sentences J and give a reason for each correction: 1. He sent those whom he thought would do the work, 2. He said that heat always caused metals to expand. 3. Neither he nor any one of his friends were there to meet me. 4. Eowing on the lake, a storm came up suddenly. 6. He would have gone if you desired. 6. No braver a man than he ever died for his country. 7. This place is the pleasantest of any other spot in this section of the country. 8. Whom do you think came to see me to-day ? 9. These orders, being illegal, they are generally communis cated orally. 10. Anna told her sister that her dress was torn, but she said that she would mend it. 11. We hear that it was Mr. A.'s horse, and not himself, who was hurt to-day. 12. A short time ago a letter appeared in your paper from myself. 13. Those sort of persons always succeed. 14. The dog sprang from the bank in the water. 16. The man of whom I spoke to you about is at the door. 16. I was not to school all last week. 17. The boys who waste their time like John does will suf- fer like he does. 18. This is a true saying, and which all will accept. 19. We can not excuse him being late. 20. I and the other pupils were dismissed early to-day. 21. He would not listen to no excuse. 22. The boy has grown quite tall, and he now looks real strong. 23. This is the most coolest spot we can find. 24. Will each of the boys bring their papers to me ? 262 GENERAL REVIEW 26. This paper is heir's. 26. The black and white horse are sold. 27. My friend, Mr. A., is more talented than any man I know. 28. If I was you I would not act so. 29. He give me the book yesterday. 30. My picture was took last week. 31. She tried to learn me my lesson. 32. I intended to have seen you when you called. 33. It don't sound right to me. 34. The example not only seems easy, but also short. 35. The teacher wants you and I to remain. 3.6. How long have these leaves laid here? 37. Will i see you tomorrow ? 38. Among the children were Julia with her little sister Mary. 39. He was able to easily adjust the stand. 40. This is the study what I dislike most. VIII. PROSODY Prosody is that part of grammar which treats of the rules that govern verse. Verse, as distinguished from prose, is the name given to the peculiar structure of language employed •in poetry. The word verse is derived from the stem vers = turn, and is so called because when the writer has written a certain num- ber of syllables he turns, as it were, and commences a new line. Originally, the word was applied only to a line of poetry. It is now, however, used to designate the general structure of poetry, as well as a group of lines of poetry, and even one of the subdivisions of a chapter in the Bible. The chief distinction between verse and prose is that the former is marked by the recurrence, at regu- lar intervals, of syllables that must be accented by the voice in reading. This regular recurrence of accent is called rhythm. The word rhythm comes from a Greek word, meaning meas- ured motion, A foot is a group of two or three syllables upon one of which the accent, or stress of the voice, falls in reading. 264 PROSODY Meter, or measure, is determined by the number and kind of feet in a line. Thus : I sprang I to the stii|rup, and J6|ris and hd, I gal|loped, Dirck g^l|loped, we gdl|loped all thr^e. — B. Browning, Rhythm is essential to verse. Rime, on the other hand, is not essential, but is very generally used as an additional ornament. Bime is usually spelled rhyme, but the older spelling (rime), "which is etymologically preferable, is coming into use again.". — Wehster^s International Dictionary, Rime consists in the similarity of sound in the final syllable or syllables of two or more words. Three things are essential to a perfect rime : 1. The vowel sounds of the riming syllablies, and, if the vowels are followed by consonants, the con- sonant soimds, must be the same ; as, try and cry, light and sprite. Identity of soimd, not of letters, is required. Lose and close do not rime. 2. The consonant sounds preceding the vowels must be different ; as, way and lay, sour and power. 3. Similarity of accent; as, sing emdjling. Sing- ing ernd fling do not rime. In single rimes^ one syllable rimes with another; as, hand and hand. In double rimes, two syllables rime with two other syllables ; as, crying and trying. In triple rimes, three syllables rime with three other syllables. In double and triple rimes, the first rim- PROSODY 265 ing syllables must conform to the rules for single rimes; the other syllables should be identical in sound. Riming syllables usually occur at the ends of lines ; the last syllable of a line may, however, be made to rime with one in the middle of the line ; as, Ho, trumpets, sound a war-note ! Ho, lictors, clear the way ! The knights will ridey in all their prides Along the streets to-day, — Macaulay. Lines whose final syllables rime should have the same indention; that is, should be commenced, in writing or printing, at an equal distance from the margin. Thus : Ring out the old, ring in the new. Ring, happy bells, across the snow : The year is going, let him go ; Ring out the false, ring in the true. — Tennyson. A couplet is composed of two consecutive lines the final syllables of which rime. A triplet is composed of three such lines. In blank verse there is rhythm, but not rime ; as, Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought Death into the world, and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heav'nly Muse. 266 PROSODY A stanza is a regularly recurring group of lines. For examples of stanzas, see Longfellow's '' Psalm of Life " and " Village Blacksmith." To scan a line is to mark the feet and tell what kind they are. KINDS OF FEET Feet are divided into dissyllabic and trisyllabic. The dissyllabic feet are the iambus and the trochee. In classical poetry a third dissyllabic foot, called the spondee, consisting of two long syllables, is used. An iambus is a dissyllabic foot accented on the second syllable; as, adore. Some prefer to use the technical terms of classical poetry and to speak of an unaccented syllable as sTiort [marked thus (w)], and of an accented syllable as long [marked thus (— )]. A trochee is a dissyllabic foot accented on the first syllable ; as, rosy ("" ^). The word comes from the Greek trochos, a running, and the foot is so called from the tripping, sprightly movement it im- parts to the verse. The trisyllabic feet are the anapest, the dactyl, and the amphibracL. The anapest is a trisyllabic foot, accented on the third syllable; as, intercede (^^■~). The anapest (ana = back, and paistos = struck) is so called because it is the reverse of the dactyl. DISSYLLABIC VERSE 267 The dactyl is a trisyllabic foot accented on the first syllable; as, holiness (~"^^). The dactyl (Greek ddktylos, a finger) is so called, because;, like a finger, it has one long joint and two short joints. The amphibrach is a trisyllabic foot, having the accent on the middle syllable ; as coeval ( ^—^ ). The amphibrach (amphi = on both sides, and brachys=i^ short) is so called because there is an unaccented syllable on each side of an accented syllable. Verses are classified according to the kind of foot and the number of feet occurring in each line. Ac- cording to the kind of foot, verse may be iambic^ trochaic, anapestic, dactylic, or amphibrachic. Accord- ing to the number of feet, a verse is monometerj if of one foot ; dimeter, if of two feet ; trimeter, if of three feet ; tetrameter, if of four feet ; pentameter, if of five feet ; and hexameter, if of six feet. If a verse has a syllable more than the regular measure, it is called hypermeter ; if a syllable less, catdlectic. DISSYLLABIC VERSE Iambic Measubes In iambic measures the accents generally fall on the eveh syllables, the second, foiu*th, etc. (a) Lines in Iambic Monometeb are rarely found. (b) Iambic Dimeter With r^v|ished ^ars The m6n|arch h^rs. — Dryden. 268 PROSODY (c) Iambic Trimeter Aldft I in aw|ful state The g6d|like heiro s^t. — Dryden. Iambic Trimeter Hypermeter In rdses Cu|pid peopling Disturbed | a be^ | a sleep|ing, (d) Iambic Tetrameter A p^rf|ect wdlman, iidibly pMnned To w^rn, | to c6in|fort, ^nd | command ; And yet a spirit still and bright With something of an angel light. — Wordsworth, This is the measure in which most of Sir Walter Scott's longer poems are written. He often varies it by introducing triplets, and dimeters or trimeters. (e) Iambic Pentameter Achfl|les' wr^th, | to Greece | the dire|ful sprfng Of w6es I unnum|bered, hedv'n|ly g6d|dess, sing. — Pope. This is what is generally called Heroic Measure. Unrimed iambic pentameters constitute the most com- mon form of blank verse. Milton's " Paradise Lost " and most of Shakespeare's plays are written in pen- tameter blank verse, though many of the lines are either hypermeter or catalectic* The elegiac stanza is a variety of this measure. It consists of four heroic lines, riming alternately ; as, DISSYLLABIC VERSE 269 The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, The plowman homeward plods his weary way. And leaves the world to darkness and to me, — Gfray. The Spenserian stanza, in which Spenser's " The Paerie Queene" and Byron's "Childe Harold" are written, consists of eight heroic lines, followed by an Alexandrine. The riming lines are the first and third ; the second, fourth, fifth, and seventh ; and the sixth, eighth, and ninth. (/) Iambic Hexameter A needless Alexandrine ends the song. Which, like | a woundjed sndke, | drags its | slow length | al6ng. — Pope. This measure is what is called Alexandrine. (g) Iambic Heptameteb Now gl6|ry td | the Ldrd | of hdsts, | from whdm | all gl(5|ries ^re! And glory to our Sovereign Liege, King Henry of Navarre ! — Macaulay. This measm'e is often called Service, Ballad, or Common Meter. It is very generally used for hymns and ballads, and is often written in lines of four and three feet alternately, the latter being the only ones that rime ; as, With slow and steady step there came A lady through the hall, And breathless silence chained the lips And touched the hearts of all. — H, O. Bell. 270 PROSODY Trochaic Measures In trochaic measures the accents usually fall on the odd syllables ; as, the first, third, etc. (a) Trochaic Dimbter Eich the I treasure, Sw^et the | pleasure. — ■ Dryden, (b) Trochaic Trimeter When a|round thee | lying, Autumn | leaves are | d^ing. Trochaic Trimeter Hypermeter Cdme, and | trip it, | as you | go, On the I light fan|t^s tic | toe. — Milton. This is the most commonly used trochaic measure (c) Trochaic Tetrameter With a I full but I s6ft e|m6tion, Like the | swell of | summer's | dcean. — Byron. (d) Trochaic Pentameter Ldw vo|luptuous I miisic | winding | trembled. — Tennyson, (e) Trochaic Hexameter Holy ! Holy ! Holy ! all the saints adore Thee. — Heber. (/) Trochaic Heptameter Leaflets on the hollow cak still as greenly quiver. — Lytton. TRISYLLABIC VERSE 271 TRISYLLABIC VERSE Anapestic Measures In anapestic measures the accent, as a rule, falls on every third syllable. (a) Anapestic Monometer As ye sweep Through the de^p. — Campbell. (b) Anapestic Dimeter In my r^ge | shall be seen The revenge | of a queen. — Addison, (c) Anapestic Trimeter I am m6n larch of ^1 | I survey. — Cotoper. (d) Anapestic Tetrameter 'Tis the voice | of the slug|gard, I hdard | him compMin. In anapestic measures, lines are frequently hyper- metrical, and an iambus is sometimes substituted for an anapest, as in the following: 'Tis the Idst | rose of sum|mer Left blo6m|ing a 16ne; All her 16ve|ly comp^n|ions Are fd|ded and gdne. — Moore. Dactylic Measures In dactylic measures, the accent, as a rule, falls upon the first, fourth, seventh, and tenth syllables. 272 PROSODY (a) Dactylic Moxometbb Merrily, Cheerily. (b) Dactylic Dimeteb Touch her not | scdmfuUy. Think of her | mournfully. — Hood. (c) Dactylic Trimeter Hypermeter Merrily, | merrily, | shdll I live | now T^^nder the | bldssom that | h^ngs on the | bough. — Shakespeare. (d) Dactylic Hexameter This measure, which is borrowed from Greek and Latin poetry, is used by Longfellow in ^' Evangeline '* and '' Miles Standish." It consists of six feet. The last foot is either a spondee or a trochee ; and the foot preceding the last is invariably a dactyl. The other four feet are generally dactyls, though a trochee is occasionally introduced ; as, Y^ who bejli^ve in af|f^ction that | h6pes, and en|dures and is I patient, Y6 wlio be|lieve in the | b^uty and | strength of | woman's de|votion. Another way of scanning dactylic lines is to read the first two syllables as a trochee, and to consider the remainder of the line amphibrachic. ALLITERATION 273 Amphibrachic Measures In amphibrachic measures the accent, as a rule, falls upon the second, fifth, eighth, and eleventh syl- lables. AMPHIBRACHIC TETRAMETER There c^me to | the be^ch a | poor ^xile | of Erin, The d^w on | his thin robe | was hedvy | and chill. — Campbell. Another way of scanning this measure is to read the first two syllables as an iambus, and to consider the remainder of the line anapestic. MIXED METER Poets frequently vary the structure of their verse by introducing a variety of feet, as in the following : Th^re be | ndne of | beauty's | daughters With a md|gic like thee: And like | music | 6n the | waters Is th^ I sweet voice | to me. % With regard to some poems, such as Coleridge's " Christabel " and Byron's '' Siege of Corinth,'* we can say only that there is a uniform number of accents in each line. ALLITERATION Alliteration consists in the repetition of a letter at the beginning of two or more words in close proximity. The effect, when skillfully managed, is pleasing to the ear \ as, MAX. 8CH. ORAM. 18 274 PROSODY Our sincerest laughter With some pain is fraught; Our sweetest songs are those that tell of maddest thought. Shakespeare burlesques its excessive use in the lines : Whereat, with Wade, with 61oody 61ameful &lade, He 6ravely broached his foiling 61oody ftreast. Exercise 91. — Select a poem for examination and determine the following: 1. The number of lines in a stanza, if the poem is written in stanzas. 2. Where rimes occur and, consequently, what lines should be indented. 3. The number of accented syllables in each line and the .number of unaccented syllables before or after each accented syllable. 4. From the data thus secured determine the name of the meter, and be prepared to point out the lines that are hyper- meter or catalectic and any variations from the prevailing foot. APPENDIX A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Languages are arranged in families according to resemblances in words and in the grammatical forms used to combine words into sentences. The English language belongs to the most impor- tant of these families, called the Indo-European because it comprises the most important languages that are or have been spoken from India to the western coast of Europe. It is also called the Aryan, from an ancient Asiatic race of that name. The Indo-European family has two great divisions: (a) Asiatic ; (b) European. Under each of these di- visions are several distinct groups of languages. (a) Asiatic Division 1. The Indian languages, including the Sanskrit (a language now no longer spoken), the modern Indian dialects of Hindo- stan, and the Gypsy dialect. 2. The Persian languages, including the Zend (the ancient language of Persia) and modern Persian. (&) European Division 1. The Hellenic languages, including the various dialects of ancient Greek and the various dialects of modern Greek. 275 276 APPENDIX A 2. The Latin languages, including ancient Latin and the sev- eral Romance languages to which the Latin has given rise: (a) Italian; (6) French; (c) Spanish; {d) Portuguese; (e) Bo- mansch or Romanese, spoken in southern Switzerland ; (/) Wal- lachian, spoken in Wallachia and Moldavia. 3. The Teutonic languages, comprising: (a) the Low Ger- man dialects, spoken originally by the tribes living on the northern shores and lowlands of Germany — now represented by Frisian, Dutch^ Flemish, and English ; (5) High German, formerly the language of the southeast of Germany, Bavaria, and Austria, now the literary dialect of Germany; (c) Scandi- navian, including Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish. 4. The Celtic languages, divided into: (a) the Cymric branch, including Welsh, Cornish, and Armorican of Brittany; (6) the Gaelic branch, comprising the Irish or Erse, the Scottish Gaelic, and the Manx of the Isle of Man. 5. Sclavonic^ including Russian, Lettish, Lithuanian, Pol- ish, etc. The English language, then, is a member of the Indo-Euro- pean family ; it belongs to the Teutonic group, and it is a Low German dialect. It was brought to America from England. It was brought to England, wliere it developed into its present form, from northern Germany, about the middle of the fifth f = on ; as, a-live, Orboard, Orsleep. For = quite, thoroughly ; as, for-loim. Un = not ; as, un-true, un-wise. Mis = wrong ; as, mis-shapen. Those used to form verbs : A = out, from, away, often used to intensify the meaning of the verb; as, a-rise, a-wake, Orrouse. Be = by, and is used in several ways : 1. To intensify the meaning of the verb; as, be-datib, be- smear. 2. To change intransitive verbs to transitive ones ; as, 6^ * speak, be-think. 3. To form transitive verbs out of adjectives and nouns; as, be-friend, be-night, be-troth. For = through, thoroughly, used to intensify the meaning of the verb ; as, for-bid, for-give, for-get. Fore = before ; as fore-bode, fore-tell. Mis = wrongly ; as, mis-believe, mis-call. Un = back ; as, un-bind, un-do. With = back, against ; as, icith-draw, withstand. Those used to form adverbs: >f = on; as, arfoot, a-field. Be = on', as, be-fore, besides. FORMATION OF WORDS 293 Exercise 92. — Form derivatives by placing pre- ^xes before the following loords^ and classify the de- -^Hvatives as nouns, adjectives, and verbs : rest fair trust kind even dress • speak call castle believe hold rise fall stand numb give speak hap conduct cloud Exercise 93. — What is the force of the prefixes in bedaub, forlorn, forewarn, misshapen, unwise, unroll, forgive. Latin Prefixes Latin prefixes frequently vary their forms in com- position, the final letter being changed to harmonize in sound with the first syllable of the base. Thus, ad becomes ac in accede ; al in allude ; at in attract ; and so on. This process is called assimilation of sound. The following are the more commonly used pre- fixes of Latin origin : A, aby abs= from, away ; as, Orvert, ab-jure, dbs-ent Ad = to I as, ad'here. By assimilation ad takes the forms a, aCj afy al, an, ap, as, and at; as, a-spirej aocord, af-fect, al- lude, an-nexy ap-peal, assume, at-tract. Amb, am (from ambi) = about ; as, amh-ition, am-putate. Ante or anti = before ; as, ante-date, anti-dpate. Bis, bi = twice ; as, binsect. Circa m = around ; as, circuinrnavigate. 294 APPENDIX B Com, «•/? = together ; as, com-mand, con-vivicU. This pre- fix assumes the forms col and cor before I and r and co before a vowel; as, colrlect, cor-rect, com-mit, co-eval, co-worker. Contra, coniro, or counter = against ; as, contra-diet, contro- vert, counter-act, De = down, from, about ; as, descend, de-part, describe, Demi = half ; as, demUgod, D/s, di, (///= apart, in two, denoting difference or negation; as, dissent, di-visioii, dif-JicuUy. Ex, e, or ef= out of, from ; as, eoD-aM, e-lect, efface. Extra = out of, beyond ; as, extra-ordinary. In = in, into ; as, in-vade. This prefix changes by assimila- tion into Uf im, ir; as, il-luatrate, imrmerse, ir-ritate. In its French form, en, it is found in en-chant, en-dure, etc. //i = not; by assimilation il, im, ir; as, inrcatUiovs, ilrlegal, im-piety, ir-revocahU, Inter, intra = between, within, among ; as, inter-pose, intro- duce, enter-p)ise, Male = ill ; as, mal-treat, raale-volerd. Hon = not ; as, non-sense. Ob = m front of, against; by assimilation, oc, of, op; as, oh- viate, oc-cupy, offend, oppose. Pene, pen = almost ; as, pen-insula. Per = through ; by assimilation, pel and pit; as, per-ceive, pel-lucid, pil-grim. Post = after ; as, postpone, post-script. Pre = before ; as, pre-dict, pre-cede. Preter = past, beyond ; as, preter-ite, preter-natural Pro = forward, before ; as, pro-ceed, pro-gress. Pro is found in the forms pur and por in purchase, pursue, portray. Pro = instead of ; as, pro-noun. Re, red= back, again ; as, re-cede, re-adopt, red-olent. Retro = backwards ; as, retro-grade, retrospect. Se, sed = apart, away ; as, scrcede, sed-ition. Se/if/=half ; as, semi-circle. FORMATION OF WORDS 295 Sine = without ; as, sine-cure. Sub = under, up from below ; by assimilation, before c, /, gf, 7n,p, r, Sy sue, suf, sug, sum, sup, sur, sus; as, stib-ject, suocor, suf'fer, sug-gest, sum-mon, sup-press, sur-prise, sus-tain, s Si/6fer = under ; 2iS, subter-fuge. Super, 5i/r= above, beyond; as, super-pose, super-natural, sur-name. Trans = across ; as, trans-form. Ultra = beyond ; as, ultra-liberal, Un, uni = one ; as, un-animous, uni-form, Vice = instead of ; as, vice-chancellor, vice-roy. Greek Prefixes The following are the Greek prefixes in most com- mon use : A, an = not ; as, anrarchy, a-morphous. Am phi = on both sides, round about ; as, amphiA>ious, amphi- theater. Ana = up, back ; as, ana-tomy, anaAysis, ' Anii = against, opposite to ; as, anti-dote, ant-arctic, Apo, ap = away from ; as, apostate, apo-stle, ap-helion, Archi, arciie, arcA = first, chief; as, architect, arche-type, arch-bishop. Auto, auiii = self ; as, auto-crat, auto-nomy, auth-entic, Cata, cat = down, over ; as, cataAogue, cat-echism, Dia = through, across ; as, dia-meter, dia-gonal, Dis, di = twice ; as, dissyllable, di-phthong, D/s = ill ; as, dys-peptic. Ec, ex = out of ; as, ec-centric, ex-odus. En, el, em = in, on, at ; as, en-comium, el-lipse, emphasis, Epi = upon; as, epi-taph, epi-demic, Eu, e¥ = well ; as, euAogy, ev-angelist. Hemi=hBlf; as hemisphere. 296 APPENDIX B Hyper = over, above ; as, hyper-hole, hyper-critical. Hypo = under ; as, hypo-crite, MeiUf met = after, changed for ; as, meta-phor, met-onymy. Mono = alone ; as, mono-gram, mono-poly. Pan = all ; as, pan-acea, x)an-orama. Para, par = beside, against ; as, para-dox, par-enthesis. Peri = around ; as, peri-meter, peri-gee, peri-helion. Poly = many ; as, poly-gamy, poly-gon, poly-technic. Pro = before ; as, pro-phet, pro-logue. Syn, syf, sym, 5/ = with; as, syn-tax, syllable, symrpathy, system, English Suffixes The principal English suffixes are the following : Those forming abstract nouns : Dom, denoting judgment, authority, dominion ; as, wis^07n, free-dom, king-dom. Hood, head, denoting state, rank, character; as, man-hood, god-head, Ing, denoting action, state ; as, read-ing, hear-ing, Hess, denoting state, quality ; as, good-ness, great-ness. Red, denoting mode, fashion ; as, hat-red, kind-red. Ship, denoting shape, manner, form ; as, friend-ship, worship = worth-ship, Th, d, i; as, weoiUh, tru-th; thef-t, from thieve ; dee-d, from do. Note. — Many nouns ending in the sufl&xes mentioned above are used hi a concrete, as well as in an abstract, sense. Those used in forming diminutives : £n ; as, maid-en, kitt-en (from cat), kitch-en (from cook). le ; as, bird-ie, dog-g-ie, Aun-ie. Ing; 'ds, farth-ing {from fourth), tith-ing (from tenth). FORMATION OF W0BD8 297 Kin; as, bump-kin, lamb-kin, nap-kin. Ling; as, dar-Ung, duck-ling , gos-ling, Ock; as, bullock, hill-ock. Miscellaneous : £r, ar, or, ier, yen, denoting the agent or doer ; as, jpam^^r, begg-ar, rm^ilor, doth-ier, law-yer, Ster (formerly a feminine suffix), denoting a female agent ; as, spinster; also an agent of either sex ; as, huckster, malt- ster. It is also used as a term of depreciation ; as, gamester, youngster. Ard, art, characterizing a person by a peculiarity ; as, coio- ard, drunk-ard, brag-g-art. Le, of, denoting an instrument; as, gird-le, Jiand-le, shov-el. Then, marking the agent and used in terms of relationship \ as, fa-ther, daugh-ter, mo-ther. Ther is also found in other nouns under the forms -ther, -der, -ter; bs, fea^-ther, blad-der, laicgh-ter. Craft, denoting skill, a trade ; as, bookrcraft, wood-craft. Fare, denoting way, course ; as, thorough-fare, wel-fare. Ric, denoting power, dominion ; as, bishop-ric. Wright, a workman ; as, wheel-wright, play-wright. Monger, a dealer ; as, news-monger. Exercise 94. — Form nouns from the following words by adding suffixes, and classify the derivatives as abstract, diminutive, and common nouns : hard lie steel direct fellow swim meek great martyr law revel high weigh girl book hardy draw child lance free leaf holy idle friend cat true dig sail 298 APPENDIX B M Exercise 95. — Point out the force of the mffixes in the following words : kindred goodness porter freedom bullock Willie worship truth writing womanhood hireling wisdom shovel maltster teacher Exercise 96. — From what words and by the ad- dition of what suffixes are the following derived : deed seed farthing shuttle spinster hatred theft wealth gosling mannikin Those used in forming adjectives : Edy dy the suffix of the past participle, is added to nouns to form adjectives; as, wing-edy tcUent-ed, hright-eye-dy golden- kair-ed. En = made of ; as, woodren, goldren. Fast = fast, firm ; as, stead-fast, shame-faced = shame^fast, which is the old form of the word. Fo/dy denoting multiplication ; as, two-fold, mani-fold, Ful = full ; as, hate-ful, will-fid, Ing, the suffix of the present participle; 2^, pkas-ing, annoy- ing. Ish = like, when added to nouns ; as, boy-ish, girJrish; when added to adjectives, the suffix means "somewhat,'* "rather"; as, black-ishy green-ish. Less = loose from, without ; as, fear-less, shame-less. This suffix has no connection with the comparative of little. Like = like ; as, child-likey war-like. Ly = like; as, man-ly, sick-ly. This suffix is a softened form of the preceding. Some = like, partaking of a certain quality ; as, glad-some, loath-some. This suffix is found in a corrupt form in buxom, flotsam, and jetsam. FORMATION OF WORDS 299 Teen, fy = ten ; as in the numerals. Th, ordinal; SiS,Jif-thy six-th. Ward = becoming, leading to ; as, south-ward^ for-ward. Wise = mode, way, manner ; as, like-wise, other-wise, X, e/j = of the nature of ; as, io-y, day-ey. Exercise 97. — Form adjectives by adding suffixes to the following words, and explain the force of ea^h suffix itsed : fog hand nine dew grace wheat brother fear flax shade frolic wool like hurt tear neighbor wood woman slave red house friend wealth hate will gold boy child war HflffP Those used in forming verbs : £/i, imparting the idea of cause, forms transitive verbs from nouns and adjectives ; as, strength-en, black-en, fat-t-en, £r, r, is added to adjectives and verbs, and imparts to the base word a frequentative and intensive force; as, hind-er, loiv-er, wand-er (from wend), glimm-er (from gleam). Le, I, is added to nouns and verbs, and imparts to the base word the sense of frequency, or diminution ; as, nestle, thrott4e (from throat), start-le, stradd-le (from stride), K, frequentative ; as, tal-k (from tell), har-k (from hear), Se, to make, forms transitive verbs from adjectives; aS| dean-se. 300 APPENDIX B Exercise 98. — By the addition of suffixes j form verbs from the following words , and explain the force of each suffix : clean sweet knee glad height muff straight red sniff nest fresh gleam Exercise 99. — What are the bases and the suffixes of the following words : throttle straddle wander glimmer bluster heighten sparkle blacken fatten cleanse talk. hark madden strengthen frighten Those used to form adverbs : Es or 5, the old suffix of the possessive case ; as in needs^ besides, thence, unawares. Ere, denoting place in ; as, here (related to he), there ( re- lated to that), where (related to who), Ly, a softened form of like ; as, only, utterly, wickedly. Ling, long, denoting direction; as in dark-ling, head-long, side-long. Then, denoting place to ; as, hither, thither, whither. Ward, wards, denoting direction ; as, homeward, back- wards. Wise, mode or manner ; as, likewise, otherwise. Way, ways. In Old English, the accusative (objective case) of nouns was sometimes used with the force of an adverb. Hence the adverbs al-ways, straight-way. The general use of the possessive suffix -es or -s to form adverbs is accountable for the forms always, straightivays, sideways. FORMATION OF WORDS 301 Exercise 100. — Form adverbs from : mighty that cheery down graceful head handsome like one silly home other Latin Suffixes The principal suffixes of Latin origin are the fol- lowing : Those used to form nouns : 1. Those forming abstract nouns : Age = act, condition, collection of; as, cour-age, homroge^folir age, Ance, ancy, ence, or enc/ = state or quality of being ; as ahund-ance, const-ancy, indulg-ence, consist-ency. Ice = that which ; as, just-ice. Ment = state of being, that which ; as, exdte^menty commandr ment. It is also used to denote instrument^ as in docvrmenvt^ oma-ment. Many = state of, that which ; as, acri^mony, testi-mony. Ion = the act of, state of being ; as, redempt-ioriy evas-ion, act-ion. Tude, denoting' condition ; as, forti-tude, grati4ude. Ty = state or quality of ; as, chari-ty, cruel-ty, Ure or eur = state of, that which ; as, grand-eur, creat-ure. y, denoting condition or faculty ; as, miser-yy mctor-y, 2. Those denoting simply a person, or one who performs the action signified by the base : Ain or an = connected with ; as, artis-an, chapl-ain. Ant or ent = one who ; as, assist-ant, sttid-ent. Any, I'er, eer, or er = one who ; as, secret-ary, brigad-ier, enginrcer, marin-er. 802 APPENDIX B Ate = one who; as, advooatCf cur-ate. In the French form, ee or e, this suffix denotes the object of an action ; as, legat-ee, nomin-ee, employ-e. I si = one who practises or is devoted to ; as, evangd-isty theor-ist. Or or er = one who ; as, conspirat-or, aticcess-or, doct-or, preach-er. Trix, denoting a female agent ; as, execurtrix. 3. Those forming diminutives : £/ or /a; as, libd (from liber, a book), castle (from oastrunif a fort). C/e or cu/e ; as, vesirde, animal-cujle. Ule; as, glob-ule. Eiie or lei; as, ros-ette, streawrlet. 4. Those forming collective nouns : ff/; as, yeoman-^. Those used in forming adjectives : Aceous or acious = made of, having the quality of; as, farim aceous, cap-acious. Ml = belonging to ; as leg-al, reg-aL An, ane, or a/'/i = connected with; as, humraUf huwrane^ cert-ain. Ar or er = belonging to ; as, regul-ar, premi^\ Ary, arious = relating or belonging to ; as, statioii-ary, greg^ arious. Able or ibie = that may be done ; as, poH-dble, sens-ible, Ani or eni, equivalent to the force of the present participle inflection ing ; as, discord-ant, cur-rent. Esceni = becoming ; as, putr-escent, Esgue = partaking of ; as, pictur-esque. Ic = belonging to ; as, civ-ic, rust-ic. Id = having the quality of ; as, acr-id, frig-icL FORMATION OF WORDS 303 I/e, ilf ee/, or /a = capable of being ; as, doo-ile, eiv-U, gent^d, ab4e. //le = belongring to; as, canrine, scd-ine. l¥B = inclined to ; as, plainUive, abus-ive. Ory = fitted or relating to ; as, admonit-ory. Ose or ous = full of; as, verlhose, curi-oua. Those used in forming verbs : Ate = to perform the act of, cause ; as, navig-ate. F/=ix} make ; as, beauti^fy, magni-Jy. hh = to make; aSffin-i^. Greek Suffixes Ic = belonging to ; as, aromat-ic, graph-ic hk, a diminutive ; as, aster-isk, obd-isk. Ize or />e, forming verbs ; as, anglic-ize, crUtc-ise. ff= agent; as, bapti-st, botani-st, ff making abstract nouns ; as, phUosoph-y, monarchry. As a general rule, all the parts of a derivative word are of like origin. An English prefix or suffix is joined to an English base ; a Latin prefix or suffix, to a Latin base ; a Greek prefix or suffix, to a Greek base. Word Analysts The analysis (Zy, lu = loosen, and ana = back, up) of a word is the resolution of it into its component elements. 304 APPENDIX B In analyzing a word, the following steps should be taken : 1. Give the class name of the composite word to be analyzed. 2. Name and describe the base. 3. Name and describe the adjunct or adjuncts. MODELS OF WORD ANALYSIS RAILROAD RECALL Class: Compound word. Class: Derivative word. Base: Simple word road. Base: Simple word call. Adjunct : Simple word rail. Adjunct : Prefix re = back. Meaning: A road upon which Meaning : To cdU back, rails are laid. AUTOGRAPH EXPAND Class : A stem-compound word. Class : A stem-derivative word Base : Stem graph = write. Base : Stem pand = spread. Adjunct : Stem auto = self. Adjunct : Prefix ex = out. Meaning: A signature or docu- Meaning : To spread out. ment written by the person himself. MODEL OF PROGRESSIVE ANALYSIS INCOMPLETENESS Class : Derivative word. Base : Derivative word incomplete. Adjunct : Snfiix ness, signifying state or quality. Meaning : The state or quality of being incomplete, incomplete Class : Derivative word. Base : Stem-derivative word complete. Adjunct : Prefix in = not. Meaning : Not complete. EQUIVALENT TERMS 307 17. Predicate = modified predicate; enlarged predicate; complete predicate ; entire predicate ; logical predicate. 18. Predicate adjective = attribute ; attribute complement; attributive corapleraeut ; subjective complement. 19. Predicate noun or pronoun = attribute ; attribute com- plement; attributive complement; subjective complement. 20. Present perfect tense = perfect tense. 21. Present tense = present imperfect tense. 22. Relative pronoun = conjunctive pronoun. 23. Subject = modified subject ; enlarged subject; complete subject ; entire subject ; logical subject. 24. Subject word = simple subject ; subject ; grammatical- subject. 25. Subordinating conjunction = subordinate conjunction; subordinative conjunction; conjunctive adverb. 26. Supplement of verb = objective complement ; objective attribute complement; adjective or noun complement; facti- tive object or an adjective used factitively; objective predicate or factitive predicate ; objective attribute. 27. Verb = predicate ; finite verb ; simple predicate ; predi- cate verb ; grammatical predicate. INDEX f The references are to the pages.) A, as a prefix, 292, 293, 295. — an, how used, 120. before h, 120 Repetition of, 120, 121. Abstract nouns, defined, 69. formed from adjectives, verbs, common nouns, 69, 70. have no plural, 77. Accent in verse, 263. Active voice, 134. Forms of tenses in, 141-146. Adjectives, 16, 17, 118-129. defined, 17, 118. as predicate complements, 36, 118. as modifiers, 39. Words, phrases, and clauses used as, 40, 46, 128. Abstract nouns formed from, 69. Classes of, 118. Demonstrative, 118, 119. as attributive and appositive modi- fiers, 118. Phrase adjectives, many a, a litUe, 119. Comparison of, 123-127. Concord of adjective and noim, 214. Position of, in sentence, 229. Adjunct of a composite word, 290. See Word Analysis, 303. Adverbial objective, 86. Adverbs, 18-20, 189-195. defined, 19. as modifier, 19, 189. Phrases and clauses used for, 42- 44, 193. Adverbs, noun or pronoun as ad- verbial modifier, **The book cost a. dollar,*' 86. Classes of, 190. Comparison of, 192. composed of two or more words, 193. Position of, in sentence, 231. Agreement, of a verb with its sub- ject, 146, 210. of a pronoun with its antecedent, 215, 218. of subject and predicate com- plement, 218. of nouns in apposition, 219. Alexandrine measure, 269. Alliteration, defined, use of, 273. Amphibrach, foot in verse, 267. Amphibrachic verse, 272-273. Analysis, explained, 51. defined, 51. of sentences, 57-67. of simple sentences, 57. of complex sentences, 61. of compound sentences, 65. of words, 303-305. Anapest, foot in verse, 266. Anapestic verse, 271. Another, distinguished from the other, 115. Antecedent, defined, 91. omitted, 106. may be phrase or clause, 109. Concord of pronoun and, 215-219. Any, Meaning of, 114. Apposition, Noun in the same case by, 86. Appositive modifier, 118. 300 310 INDEX Article, an, the, 119-123. As, relative pronoun, 107. Uses of, 190, 192. subordinating conjunction, 202. Assimilation of sound, 293. Attribute, another name for predi- cate complement, 307. Attributive modifier, 118. Aught, 114. Author, not authoress, 82. See Gender, 78-82. Auxiliary verbs, 161. Conjugation of, 168. B Base, of a composite word, 290. may be a word, 290, 291. may be a stem, 290, 291. Be, verb. Conjugation of, 170-172. Principal parts, 170, 184. as a prefix, 292. Blank verse, 265. Both — and, 203. Position of, 236. But, as a preposition, 48. coordinating conjunction, 202. Improper use of, 218. that, Wrong use of, 48. By, Proper use of, 198. Can, a notional verb, meanmg, 175. Conjugation of, 175. Principal parts, 184. Capitals, Rules for, 240-241. Small and large, 241. Case, 82-87. defined, 83. Nominative, 84. Possessive, 84. Objective, 86. Concord of cases, 218-219. Catalectic, in verse, 267. Clause, modifier, 40. defined, 45. Independent and suboi^dinate, 46. Adjective, 46. Adverbial, 46. Noun, 47. Clause, Mode and tense of verbs in subordinate, 220-223. Position of, 231-234. Ellipsis of, 238. Punctuation of, 243, 245. Collective noun, defined, 69. Concord of verb with, 147, 210. Colon, 245. Comma, 243. Common noun, defined, 68. Comparative degree, 123-127. Double, 126. Thing compared excluded from class, 127. Comparison of adjectives, 123-127. positive degree, 123. comparative degree, 123-127. superlative degree, 123-127. Rules for forming, 124. of adverbs, 192. Complement, of a verb, 35-37. defined, 36. Predicate, 36. in the nominative case, 82. in the objective case, 86. of a transitive verb and of an in- transitive verb, 130-133. of a passive verb, 133. Complex sentences, 58-63. Analysis of, 58-63. Definition of, 59. changed to simple sentences, 153, 159. Pimctuation of, 244. Composite word, defined, 284. Adjunct of, 290. analyzed, 303. Compound, subject, predicate, and object, in simple sentences, 54. sentence. Definition of, 63. sentences formed from simple, 63. sentences, Nature of clauses in, 63. sentences, Analysis of, 65. sentences, Punctuation of, 245. nouns. Plurals of, 77. nouns. Possessive cases of, 85. words, 291. words. Accent of, 291. words, analyzed, 303. Concord, 209-223. defined, 209. INDEX 311 Concord, of . subject and predicate, 210-214. of adjective and noun, 214. of pronoun and antecedent, 215, 218. of cases, 218, 219. of tenses, 220. Conjugation, of the verb, 167-183. of transitive verb sec, 176-183. Conjunctions, 23-26, 201-208. defined, 24, 201. Classes of, 201. Coordinating and subordinating, distinguished, 201-203. Connectives may be conjunctions and relative pronouns, 59-60. Coordinating conjunctions, 201-202. Copulative verb, 133. Couplet (in verse), 266. Dactyl, foot in verse, 267. Dactylic verse, 271-273. Dare, verb, irregularities in conju- gation, 176. Principal parts, 184. Dash, Use of, 246. Dative case, remnant of Anglo-Saxon • inflection, 93. Declarative sentence, 29-30. Declension, of nouns, 87. of personal pronoun of first person, 93. of personal pronoim of second person, 94. of personal pronoun of third person, 95. of who and which, 100, 101, 103. of whosoever, 107. Defective verbs, 167, 174. notional verbs, 174. Degree, Clause of, elliptical, 46. Demonstrative pronouns, 112. Use of, 112. Ellipsis of, 237. adjectives, 118-119. Derivative word, defined, 291. analyzed, 303. Dight, past participle, 176. Dimeter verse, 267. Diminutives, how formed, 302. Direct object, 37. Distributive pronouns, 115. Do, Conjugation of, as a notional verb, 172-173. uses as an auxiliary verb, 173. Principal parts, 184. Don't, 213. Double, comparative, 126. negative, 226. rimes, 264. E Each, distinguished from every, 115. joined to singular noun, 215. other, 115. Either, indefinite pronoun, 115, 116. Concord of, 215. — or, 203, 212. EUder — eldest, distinguished from older, 126. Elements of a sentence, 29-50. classified, 49. Ellipsis, defined, 237. Cases of, 237-240. Emphatic, form of the verb, 165. use of pronoun, 97. English, prefixes, 292-293. suffixes, 296-299. Etymology, defined, derivation of word, 9. Systematic treatment of, 67-208. Every, indefinite pronoun, 115. other, 115. Exclamatory sentence, 30. Punctuation of, 246. False syntax. Examples of, 213-^50. Farther, Comparison of, 126. Meaning of, 193. Foot, in verse, defined, 266. Kinds of feet, 266. For, subordinating conjunction, 202. as a prefix, 292. Further, Comparison of, 126. Meaning of, 193. Future, indefinite tense, 146. perfect tense, 145. 312 INDEX Gender, defined, 78. Three kinds of, 78. Common, 79. in souns, how indicated, 80. Gerun^ defined, 167. Government, 224. defined, 224. Errors in, 224. Grammar, defined, 7. Divisions of, 7-11. Greek, nouns, 74. prefixes, 295-296. suffixes, 303. H Have, Conjugation of, 169. Meaning as a notional verb and uses as an auxiliary, 169. Principal parts, 185. He, pronoun, 95. Her, pronoun, 95. Here, adverb of place, 190. used to introduce a sentence, 228. Heroic measure, 268. Hers, possessive form, 96. Hexameter verse, 269. Dactylic, 272. Hight, a passive verb, 175. Hypermeter, in verse, 269. Hyphen, 247. I, personal pronoun, 92. Iambic verse, 267-269. Iambus, foot in verse, 266. If, subordinating conjunction, 202. Imperative, sentence, 29-30. mode, defined, 137. subject follows the verb, 2B8. Impersonal verb, 130. In, Proper use of, 198. Incomplete intransitive verbs, 132. Indefinite pronoun, 113. Uses of, 113-116. as antecedent of personal pronoun, 21d, Indention of verse, 265. Independent words or phrases, 44 4 6. Indicative mode, defined, 136. distinguished from subjunctive, 138-139. Indirect object, 37. Infinitive, 150-155. defined, 150. f Uses of, 151-152. has two forms, 152. ** noun phrases, 152. adjective phrases, 152. . adverbial phrases, 152. \k Use of to explained, 153. ' \ takes the form required by tense of the principal verb. Ellipsis of, 237. Inflection defined, 8. Interjection, 26-28. defined, 27. Punctuation after, 246. Interrogative, sentence, 29-30. Punctuation of, 246. pronouns, 99. and relative pronouns distin| guished, 108. Into, Proper use of, 198. Intransitive verbs, defined, 131. become transitive, 131. may form predicates, 132. incomplete verbs, 132. Irregular (or weak) verbs, 183. List of, 184-186. It, inflection, 95. Italics, how used, 242. Its, History of, 95. Language defined, 7. Latin, plurals of nouns, 74, prefixes, 293-295. suffixes, 301-303. Lay, irregular verb, 185. Least, Comparison of, 125. Less, Comparison of, 125. Lest, subordinating conjimction, 202. Let, irregular verb, 185. Lie (to recline), irregular verb, 185. conjugated in potential modo, 182-183. INDEX 313 Like, not a conjunction, 260. Lists, impersonal verb, 130. Little, Comparison of, 125. M Many, adjective, 119. "Full many a flower," 119. Comparison of, 126. May, Meaning of, uses, conjugation, 174. Principal parts, 185. Mesdames, plural of Mrs., 75. Messieurs, plural of Mr., 75. Meter (in verse), 264. Service, ballad, or common meter, 269. Mixed meter, 273. Methinks, 93, 130. Mine, Use of, 96. Parsing of, 96. Mode, 136-141. defined, 136. Three modes, 136. See Indicative^ etc., 136. Potential, 182-183. Modification, defined, 225. Adjective modifiers, 225. Adverbial modifiers, 226. Modifier, explained and defined, 19. Adjective, 39-42. Adverbial, 42—44. Appositive, attributive, and predi- cate, 118. Monometer verse, 267. Must, defective verb, 175. Myself, pronoun, 92. Reflexive and emphatic use of, 97. N Naught, 114. Need, verb, 175. Needs, adverb, 175. Negative, Double, 226. Neither, indefinite pronoun, 115. — nor, 203. Concord of nouns connected by, 212. Position of subject after, 228. Position of. 236. Never, Error in use of, 232. No, not an adverb, 191. other, 115. Nominative, case of noims, 84. by address, 84. absolute, 84. absolute, as adverbial modifier, 156. Do not use the nominative case for the objective, 224. None, Derivation and use of, 114, 210. Nor, conjunction, 203. equivalent to and not, 203. Concord of nouns connected by, 212. Position of subject after, 228. Position of, 236. Not, adverb, 190. Error in use of, 233. only, 203. Position of, 235-236. Notional verb, 161. Noun, 11, 67-91. defined, 11, 67. Subject, 34. Predicate, 36, 82, 133. Classes of nouns, 68. Proper, 68. Common, 68. Collective, 69. Abstract, 69. Inflection of, 71-«8. Parsing, 89. Substitutes for, 89. in apposition, 86, 219. as adverbial modifier, 86. used to explain another, 86, 219. Concord of loun and verb, 211- 214 ; of adjective and noun, 214 ; of noun and pronoun, 215-218. Ellipsis of, 237. Now, adverb, 190. used as a noun, 191. Number of nouns, defined, 72. Singular, 72. Plural, 72. Plural, how formed, 72-78. Agreeing in, 146, 210-220. Inflections of verbs to denote num- ber. 147. 802 APPENDIX B Ate = one who; as, advooate, cur-ate. In the French form, ee or e, this suffix denotes the object of an action ; as, legat-ee, nomin-ee, employ-e. 1st = one who practises or is devoted to ; as, evangd-isty theor-ist. Or or er = one who ; as, conspirat-or, atuxess-or, doctror, preach-er, Trix, denoting a female agent ; as, eacecurtrix. 3. Those forming diminutives : £/ or /a; as, libel (from liber, a book), castle (from oastrum, a fort). C/e or cu/e; as, vesi-de, animaJrCute. Ule; as, glob-ule, Ette or let; as, ros-^tte, 8tream4et, 4. Those forming collective nouns : ff/; as, yeoman-^. Those used in forming adjectives : Aceous or acious = made of, having the quality of ; SLSyfaririy aceousj cap-acious. Al = belonging to ; as leg-al, reg-al. An, ane, or a/'/i = connected with; as, humrauy humrane^ cert-ain. Ar or en = belonging to ; as, regul-ar, premi-er. Any, arious = relating or belonging to ; as, station-ary, greg^ arious. Able or ibie = that may be done ; as, poH-able, sens-ible. Ant or ent, equivalent to the force of the present participle inflection i7ig; as, discord-ant, cur-rent, Escent = becoming ; as, putr-escent. Esque = partaking of ; as, pictur-esque. Ic = belonging to ; as, civ-ic, rust-ic. Id= having the quality of; as, a>C7''id, frig-icL FORMATION OF WORDS 303 t/e, i/, ee/, or /a = capable of being ; as, doo-Ue, civ-U, gent-^d, ab4e. Ins = belongring to ; as, canrine, saHrine. Ive = inclined to ; as, ptaint-ive, abus-ive, Ory = fitted or relating to ; as, admonit-ory. Ose or on^ = full of; as, verlhose, curirous. Those used in forming verbs : Aie = to perform the act of, cause ; as, navig^ute. Fy=\o make ; as, heauiirfy, magni-Jy. Ish = to make; 2iS,Jinrt8h. Greek Suffixes to = belonging to ; as, aromat-ic^ graphric Isk, a diminutive ; as, aster-isk, ohd-isk, Ize or ise, forming verbs ; as, anglic-izes crUic-ise, Sf= agent; as, bapti-st, hotani-st, f, making abstract nouns ; as, phUosophry, monarchry. As a general rule, all the parts of a derivative word are of like origin. An English prefix or suffix is joined to an English base ; a Latin prefix or suffix, to a Latin base ; a Greek prefix or suffix, to a Greek base. Word Analysts The analysis (Zy, lu = loosen, and ana = back, up) of a word is the resolution of it into its component elements. 304 APPENDIX B In analyzing a word, the following steps should be taken : 1. Give the class name of the composite word to be analyzed. 2. Name and describe the base. 3. Name and describe the adjunct or adjuncts. MODELS OF WORD ANALYSIS RAILROAD RECALL Class: Compound word. Class: Derivative word. Base : Simple word road. Base : Simple word caU. Adjunct : Simple word rail. Adjunct : Prefix re = back. Meaning: A road upon which Meaning : To caU hack, rails are laid. AUTOGRAPH EXPAND Class : A stem-compound word. Class : A stem-derivative word Base : Stem graph — write. Base : Stem paind = spread. Adjunct : Stem auto = self. Adjunct : Prefix ex = out. Meaning: A signature or docu- Meaning : To spread out. ment written by the person himself. MODEL OF PROGRESSIVE ANALYSIS INCOMPLETENESS Class : Derivative word. Base : Derivative word incomplete. Adjunct : Suffix ness^ signifying state or quality. Meaning : The state or quality of being incomplete. incomplete Class : Derivative word. Base : Stem-derivative word complete. Adjunct : Prefix in = not. Meaning : Not complete. EQUIVALENT TERMS 307 17. Predicate = modified predicate; enlarged predicate; complete predicate ; entire predicate ; logical predicate. 18. Predicate adjective = attribute ; attribute complement; attributive complement; subjective complement. 19. Predicate noun or pronoun = attribute ; attribute com- plement; attributive complement; subjective complement. 20. Present perfect tense = perfect tense. 21. Present tense = present imperfect tense. 22. Relative pronoun = conjunctive pronoun. 23. Subject = modified subject ; enlarged subject ; complete subject ; entire subject ; logical subject. 24. Subject word = simple subject ; subject ; grammatical subject. 25. Subordinating conjunction = subordinate conjunction; subordinative conjunction; conjunctive adverb. 26. Supplement of verb = objective complement ; objective attribute complement; adjective or noun complement; facti- tive object or an adjective used factitively; objective predicate or factitive predicate ; objective attribute. 27. Verb = predicate ; finite verb ; simple predicate ; predi- cate verb ; grammatical predicate. INDEX f The references are to the pages.) A, as a prefix, 292, 293, 295. — an, how used, 120. before h, 120 Repetition of, 120, 121. Abstract nouns, defined, 69. formed from adjectives, verbs, common nouns, 69, 70. have no plural, 77. Accent in verse, 263. Active voice, 134. Forms of tenses in, 141—146. Adjectives, 16, 17, 118-129. defined, 17, 118. as predicate complements, 36, 118. as modifiers, 39. Words, phrases, and clauses used as, 40, 46, 128. Abstract nouns formed from, 69. Classes of, 118. Demonstrative, 118, 119. as attributive and appositive modi- fiers, 118. Phrase adjectives, many a, a litUe, 119. Comparison of, 123-127. Concord of adjective and noun, 214. Position of, in sentence, 229. Adjunct of a composite word, 290. See Word Analysis, 303. Adverbial objective, 86. Adverbs, 18-20, 189-195. defined, 19. as modifier, 19, 189. Phrases and clauses used for, 42- 44, 193. Adverbs, noun or pronoun as ad- verbial modifier, "The book cost a. dollar," 86. Classes of, 190. Comparison of, 192. composed of two or more words, 193. Position of, in sentence, 231. Agreement, of a verb with its sub- ject, 146, 210. of a pronoun with its antecedent, 215, 218.- of subject and predicate com- plement, 218. of nouns in apposition, 219. Alexandrine measure, 269. Alliteration, defined, use of, 273. Amphibrach, foot in verse, 267. Amphibrachic verse, 272-273. Analysis, explained, 51. defined, 51. of sentences, 57-67. of simple sentences, 57. of complex sentences, 61. of compoimd sentences, 66. of words, 303-305. Anapest, foot in verse, 266. Anapestic verse, 271. Another, distinguished from the other, 115. Antecedent, defined, 91. omitted, 106. may be phrase or clause, 109. Concord of pronoun and, 215-219. Any, Meaning of, 114. Apposition, Noun in the same case by, 86. Appositive modifier, 118. 800 310 INDEX Article, an, the, 119-123. As, relative pronoun, 107. Uses of, 190, 192. subordinating conjunction, 202. Assimilation of sound, 293. Attribute, another name for predi- cate complement, 307. Attributive modifier, 118. Aught, 114. Author, not authoress, 82. See Gender, 78-82. Auxiliary verbs, 161. Conjugation of, 168. Base, of a composite word, 290. may be a word, 290, 291. may be a stem, 290, 291. Be, verb. Conjugation of, 170-172. Principal parts, 170, 184. as a prefix, 292. Blank verse, 265. Both — and, 203. Position of, 236. But, as a preposition, 48. coordinating conjunction, 202. Improper use of, 218. that, Wrong use of, 48. By, Proper use of, 198. Can, a notional verb, meaning, 175. Conjugation of, 175. Principal parts, 184. Capitals, Rules for, 240-241. Small and large, 241. Case, 82-87. defined, 83. Nominative, 84. Possessive, 84. Objective, 86. Concord of cases, 218-219. Catalectic, in verse, 267. Clause, modifier, 40. defined, 45. Independent and subordinate, 46. Adjective, 46. Adverbial, 46. Noun, 47. Clause, Mode and tense of ver in subordinate, 220-223. Position of, 231-234. Ellipsis of, 238. Punctuation of, 243, 245. Collective noim, defined, 69. Concord of verb with, 147, 210. Colon, 245. Conmia, 243. Common noim, defined, 68. Comparative degree, 123-127. Double, 126. Thing compared excluded froi class, 127. Comparison of adjectives, 123-127. positive degree, 123. comparative degree, 123-127. superlative degree, 123-127. Rules for forming, 124. of adverbs, 192. Complement, of a verb, 35-37. defined, 36. Predicate, 36. in the nominative case, 82. in the objective case, 86. of a transitive verb and of an is transitive verb, 130-133. of a passive verb, 133. Complex sentences, 58-63. Analysis of, 58-63. Definition of, 59. changed to simple sentences, 15S 159. Punctuation of, 244. Composite word, defined, 284. Adjunct of, 290. analyzed, 303. Compound, subject, predicate, an object, in simple sentences, 5^ sentence, Definition of, 63. sentences formed from simple, 6; sentences, Nature of clauses in, 6; sentences, Analysis of, 65. sentences. Punctuation of, 245. nouns. Plurals of, 77. nouns, Possessive cases of, 85. words, 291. words, Accent of, 291. words, analyzed, 303. Concord, 209-223. defined, 209. UfDKX 311 Concord, of subject and predicate, 210-214. of adjective and noun, 214. of pronoun and antecedent, 215, 218. of cases, 218, 219. of tenses, 220. Conjugation, of the verb, 167-183. of transitive verb see, 176-183. Conjunctions, 23-26, 201-208. defined, 24, 201. glasses of, 201. Coordinating and subordinating, ' distinguished, 201-203. Connectives may be conjunctions and relative pronouns, 59-60. Ijfoordinating conjunctions, 201-202. Copulative verb, 133. Couplet (in verse), 265. Dactyl, foot in verse, 267. Dactylic verse, 271-273. ^Dare, verb, irregularities in conju- gation, 176. Principal parts, 184. Dash, Use of, 246. Dative case, remnant of Anglo-Saxon inflection, 93. Declarative sentence, 29-30. Declension, of nouns, 87. of personal pronoun of first person, 93. of personal pronoun of second person, 94. of personal pronoun of third person, 95. of who and which, 100, 101, 103. of whosoever, 107. Defective verbs, 167, 174. notional verbs, 174. Degree, Clause of, elliptical, 46. Demonstrative pronouns, 112. Use of, 112. Ellipsis of, 237. adjectives, 118-119. Derivative word, defined, 291. analyzed, 303. Dight, past participle, 176. Dimeter verse, 267. Diminutives, how formed, 302. Direct object, 37. Distributive pronouns, 115. Do, Conjugation of, as a notional verb, 172-173. uses as an auxiliary verb, 173. Principal parts, 184. Don't, 213. Double, comparative, 126. negative, 226. rimes, 264. E Each, distinguished from every, 115. joined to singular noun, 215. other, 115. Elither, indefinite pronoun, 115, 116. Concord of, 215. — or, 203, 212. Mder — eldest, distinguished from older, 126. Mements of a sentence, 29-50. classified, 49. Ellipsis, defined, 237. Cases of, 237-240. Emphatic, form of the verb, 165. use of pronoun, 97. English, prefixes, 292-293. suffixes, 296-299. Etymology, defined, derivation ^ of word, 9. Systematic treatment of, 67-208. Every, indefinite pronoun, 115. other, 115. Exclamatory sentence, 30. Pimctuation of, 246. False syntax. Examples of, 213-^50. Farther, Comparison of, 126. Meaning of, 193. Foot, in verse, defined, 266. Kinds of feet, 266. For, subordinating conjunction, 202. as a prefix, 292. Further, Comparison of, 126. Meaning of, 193. Future, indefinite tense, 146. perfect tense, 145. 312 INDEX Gender, defined, 78. Three kinds of, 78. Common, 79. \a Douns, how indicated, 80. Gerun. defined, 167. Government, 224. defined, 224. Errors in, 224. Grammar, defined, 7. Divisions of, 7-11. Greek, nouns, 74. prefixes, 295-296. suffixes, 303. H Have, Conjugation of, 169. Meaning as a notional verb and uses as an auxiliary, 169. Principal parts, 185. He, pronoun, 95. Her, pronoun, 95. Here, adverb of place, 190. used to introduce a sentence, 228. Heroic measure, 268. Hers, possessive form, 96. Hexameter verse, 269. Dactylic, 272. Hight, a passive verb, 175. Hypermeter, in verse, 269. Hyphen, 247. T, personal pronoun, 92. Iambic verse, 267-269. Iambus, foot in verse, 266. If, subordinating conjunction, 202. Imperative, sentence, 29-30. mode, defined, 137. subject follows the verb, 288. Impersonal verb, 130. In, Proper use of, 198. Incomplete intransitive verbs, 132. Indefinite pronoun, 113. Uses of, 113-116. as antecedent of personal pronoun, 216. Indention of verse, 265. Independent words or phrases, 44-46. Indicative mode, defined, 136. distinguished from subjunctive, 138-139. Indirect object, 37. Infinitive, 150-155. » defined, 150. ' Uses of, 151-152. has two forms, 152. •' noun phrases, 152. adjective phrases, 152. . . adverbial phrases, 152. t^ Use of to explained, 153. takes the form required by tense of the principal verb, ! Ellipsis of, 237. Inflection defined, 8. Interjection, 26-28. defined, 27. Punctuation after, 246. Interrogative, sentence, 29-30. Punctuation of, 246. pronouns, 99. and relative pronouns distin| guished, 108. Into, Proper use of, 198. Intransitive verbs, defined, 131. become transitive, 131. may form predicates, 132. incomplete verbs, 132. Irregular (or weak) verbs, 183. List of, 184-186. It, inflection, 95. Italics, how used, 242. Its, History of, 95. Language defined, 7. Latin, plurals of nouns, 74. prefixes, 293-295. suffixes, 301-303. Lay, irregular verb, 185. Least, Comparison of, 125. Less, Comparison of, 125. Lest, subordinating conjunction, 202. Let, irregular verb, 186. Lie (to recline), irregular verb, 185. conjugated in potential modo, 182-183. INDEX 313 Like, not a conjunction, 260. Lists, impersonal verb, 130. Little, Comparison of, 125. M Many, adjective, 119. "Full many a flower," 119. Comparison of, 126. May, Meaning of, uses, conjugation, 174. Principal parts, 185. Mesdames, plural of Mrs., 75. Messieurs, plural of Mr., 75. Meter (in verse), 264. Service, ballad, or common meter, 269. Mixed meter, 273. Methinks, 93, 130. Mine, Use of, 96. Parsing of, 96. Mode, 136-141. defined, 136. Three modes, 136. See Indicative, etc., 136. Potential, 182-183. Modification, defined, 225. Adjective modifiers, 225. Adverbial modifiers, 226. Modifier, explained and defined, 19. Adjective, 39-42. Adverbial, 42-44. Appositive, attributive, and predi- cate, 118. Monometer verse, 267. Must, defective verb, 176. Myself, pronoun, 92. Reflexive and emphatic use of, 97. N Naught, 114. Need, verb, 175. Needs, adverb, 175. Negative, Double, 226. Neither, indefinite pronoun, 115. — nor, 203. Concord of nouns connected by, 212. Position of subject after, 228. Position of, 236. Never, Error in use of, 232. No, not an adverb, 191. other, 115. Nominative, case of nouns, 84. by address, 84. absolute, 84. absolute, as adverbial modifier, 156. Do not use the nominative case for the objective, 224. None, Derivation and use of, 114, 210. Nor, conjunction, 203. equivalent to and not, 203. Concord of nouns connected by, 212. Position of subject after, 228. Position of, 236. Not, adverb, 190. Error in use of, 233. only, 203. Position of, 235-236. Notional verb, 161. Noun, 11, 67-91. defined, 11, 67. Subject, 34. Predicate, 36, 82, 133. Classes of nouns, 68. Proper, 68. Common, 68. Collective, 69. Abstract, 69. Inflection of, 71-88. Parsing, 89. Substitutes for, 89. in apposition, 86, 219. as adverbial modifier, 86. used to explain another, 86, 219. Concord of loim and verb, 211- 214 ; of adjective and noun, 214 ; of noun and pronoun, 215-218. Ellipsis of, 237. Now, adverb, 190. used as a noun, 191. Number of nouns, defined, 72. Singular, 72. Plural, 72. Plural, how formed, 72-78. Agreeing in, 146, 210-220. Inflections of verbs to denote num- ber. 147. 814 INDEX Object, of a transitive verb, 36, 47, 54, 82, 130, 131. of preposition, 21, 86. Direct, indirect, 37, 131. Noun or pronoun in objective case, 86. Ellipsis of, 238. Objective, case, 86. Adverbial, 86. Older — oldest, compared with elder, 126. One, Use of, 113. another, 115. Only, adverb, Proper use of, 233. Or, conjunction, 203. Either — or, singular verb follows subject connected by, 212. Position of, 236. Order of words, 227-238. Usual, 227. Rules of, 227. Exercises in, 228-236. Orthography, defined, 8. Other, as an adjective, 115. as a pronoun, 115. Ought, 175. Hadn't ought to, didn* ought to, 213. Ours, Use of, and parsing, 96. Parenthesis, Use of, 247. Parsing, of the noun, 89. personal pronoun, 97. interrogative and relative pro- noun, 110. the adjective, 128. the verb, 187. the adverb, 194. the preposition, 199. the conjunction, 204. Participles, 155-161. of transitive verbs govern the objective case, 155. defined, 156. Noun, 156. Adjective, 156. Three forms, 157. Participles, distinguished from com- mon nouns, 158. Ellipsis of, 237. Parts of speech, 8, 11-28, 67-208. Words classified according to their use in a sentence, 191. Passive voice, Definition of, 135. Object of verb in active voice becomes subject, when verb is changed to passive, 135. Tenses in, 141-142. Tenses in, formed by aid of verb he, 135, 164. Ck)njugation of verb in, 176-183. Some verbs in, require comple- ment, 132. Supplement of verb in active voice becomes predicate complement of verb in passive voice, 132. Past tense (Past indefinite), 144. Past perfect tense, 145. Pentameter verse, 267. Perfect tense, Present, 144. Past 145. Period, 248. Person, of a noun, 88. defined, 88. and number, of a verb, 146-160. Personal pronouns, 9^99. Parsing of, 97. EUipsis of, 237. Phrase, defined, 40, 45. Noun, 45; substitute for noun, 89 ; as subject of sentence, 151, 156 ; as object, 152, 156. Adjective, 40; as substitute for adjective, 148; as predicate complement, 38, 152; as modi- fier, 40, 128. Adverbial, 42-43 ; as substitute for adverb, 193 ; as modifier, 42-43. Position of adjective phrase, 230. Position of adverbial phrase, 231- 234. Plural, See Number. of nouns imported from foreign languages, 74. Poetry written in verse, 263. Positive degree, 123. Possessive case of noims, inflection and uses, 84-86. INDEX 315 Possessive case, Noun in apposition after, 85. Uses and parsing of possessive forms of personal pronouns, 96. as adjective modifier, 128. before a noun participle, 266. Potential mode, 182-183. Predicate, 31-39. must be, or contain, a verb, 12. defined, 32. Concord of subject and, 210- 214. omitted, 238. complement, 35-39. Prefixes, Meaning and use of, 285. English, 292. Latin, 293-295. Greek, 295-296. Preposition, 20-21, 195-200, 224, 235, 238. defined, 21. The object of, 21. Position of, 195, 235. made up of two or three words, 197. joined to a verb, 197. Proper use of, 198. governs the objective case, 224. Ellipsis of, 238. Present indefinite tense, 143. Present perfect tense, 144 Prime word, 284. Principal elements of a sentence, 49- 50. Pronoun, 14-15, 91-117. defined, 15, 91. Classes and inflections, 91-117. Personal, 92-99. Interrogative, 99-102. Relative, 102-111. Adjective, 111-117. Demonstrative, 112. Indefinite, 113-117. Concord of pronoun and its ante- cedent, 215, 218. Ellipsis of, 237. Proper noun, 68. Prosody, defined, 263. Systematic treatment of, 263-274. Punctuation, 243-250. Quality, Adjectives of, 118. Quantity, Adjectives of, 118-119. Quotation, Direct and indirect, 241, 244, 248. Marks of, 248. Quoth, verb, Use of, 176. Rather, comparative of rathe, 193. Redundant verb, 167. Reflexive use of pronoun, 97. Regular verbs, 183. Relative pronoun, 102-111. how first used, 103. declined, 103. as used in restrictive and co- ordinate clauses, 104. and interrogative pronouns dis- tinguished, 108. How to parse, 110. Concord of verb with, 215. Concord with antecedent, 215-216. Ellipsis of, 237. clause, Punctuation of, 244. Rhythm in verse, 263. Rime, defined, 264. Three things necessary to, 264. Scan (to scan in poetry), 266. See, transitive verb, conjugated, 176- 183. Sentence, used in three ways, 29. Declarative, 29-30. Interrogative, 29-30. Imperative, 29-30. Exclamatory, 30. consists of two parte, 31. Analysis of, 51, 57, 61, 65. Construction of, 51-66. Simple, 52-58. Complex, 58-63. Compound, 63-66. Punctuation of, 243-260. Shall, distinguished from toill, 163. Conjugation of, 168. Principal parts, 185. 316 INDEX Simple sentences, Elements of, 52- 58. Analysis of, 57. Single rimes, 264. Singular number of nouns, 72. See Number, 71-78. So, used for avxih, 116. Some, as pronoun, as adjective, 114. takes a plural verb, 210. Stanza (in verse), 266. Elegiac, 268. Spenserian, 269. Stems, parts of words found in other languages, 285. Stem-compound, 291. Stem-derivative, 291. See Word Analysis, 303. Strong verbs, 183. Subject, 31-35. defined, 32. Different forms of, 34. Difference between the grammati- cal and the entire, or logical, 207. Concord of subject and predicate, 210-214. Subjective complement, another name for predicate complement, 307. Subjunctive mode, 136-141. defined, 137. introduced by if, though, unless, except, lest, that, 137. What the subjunctive expresses, 137. distinguished from indicative, 138- 139. Subordinate clauses, 46. Subordinating conjimctions, 202. Such, as adjective, as pronoun, 116. Suffixes, Meaning and use of, 285. English, 296-301. Latin, 301-303. Greek, 303. Superlative degree, 123-127. Thing compared included in class, 127. Supplement of a verb, 37. Syntax, 209-250. defined, 209. Synthesis, explained, 51-52. defined, 52. Tenses, 141-146. defined, 141. Three principal, 141. Table of tense forms, 142. Primary, how used, 142—145. Secondary, 145-146. of infinitive and participles, 152, 157. of the indicative mode, 162. of the subjunctive mode, 164. of the imperative mode, 164. of the passive voice, 164. Concord of, 220. Tetrameter verse. 267. Than, after comparative degree, 127. conjunction. Use of, 233. That, relative pronoun, when pre- ferred to who and which, 104. demonstrative pronoim, 112. demonstrative adjective, 119. used with nouns in the singular, 214. subordinating conjimction, 202. introduces a noun clause, 47. Ellipsis of, 237. The article, Use of, 119-123. as an adverb, 191. Theirs, Use of, and parsing, 96. There, adverb, used to introduce a sentence, 228. Thine, Use of, 96. This, demonstrative pronoim, 112. demonstrative adjective, 119. used with noims in the singular, 214. Thou, Use of, 94. Though, subordinating conjunction, 203. — yet, 203. To, preposition. Use of, 153. To wit. Use of, 175. Transitive verbs, defined, 130. have voice, 134. when in active voice can not make complete predicate, 130. govern the objective case, 224. Trimeter verse, 267. Trochee, foot in verse, 266. INDEX 317 Verb, 12, 13, 129, 189. Complements of, 35-37. Supplement of, 37. Personal and impersonal, 130. Transitive and intransitive, 130. Active and pstssive voice of, 134. Modes of, 136-141. Tenses of, 141-146. Verbals, 150-161. Nimiber and person, 146-150. Notional, 161. Auxiliary, 161, 168-183. Conjugation of, 167-183. Defective, 174. R^ular and irregular, 183. Strong and weak, 183. List of irregular, 184-186. Concord of, 210-214. in subordinate clauses, 221. ElUpsis of, 237-238. Verse, defined, 263. Blank, 265. classified, 267. Dissyllabic, 266-270. TrisyUabic, 266, 271-273. Voice, 134. Active, 134, Passive, 134-135. W We, pronoun, 92. Special uses of, 93. Weak verbs, 183. What, as interrogative pronoun, 100- 101. to introduce exclamation, 101. equivalent to that which, 106. to introduce a noun clause, 106. as an adjective, 107. Whether, as pronoun, 101. subordinating conjunction, 203. — or, 203. Which, as interrogative pronoun, 100. as relative pronoun, 102-103. Inflection of, 103. distinguished from who and tfuU, 104. Old use of, 106. as an adjective, 106. Who, interrogative pronoun, 100. as relative pronoun, 101^103. declined, 103. Uses of, 103-104. Whose, Use of, 105. Whosoever, declined, 107. Words, 7. classified according to use, 8. classified according to formation, 284. analyzed, 303. Ye, Use of, 94. Yes, not an adverb, 191. Yet, 202. You, pronoun, 92. with plural verb, 212. Yours, Use of, and parsing, 96. 316 INDEX Simple sentences, Elements of, 52- 58. Analysis of, 57. Single rimes, 264. Singular nmnber of nouns, 72. See Number, 71-78. So, used for stick, 116. Some, as pronoun, as adjective, 114. takes a plural verb, 210. Stanza (in verse), 266. Elegiac, 268. Spenserian, 269. Stems, parts of words found in other languages, 285. Stem-compound, 291. Stem-derivative, 291. See Word Anaiysia, 303. Strong verbs, 183. Subject, 31-35. defined, 32. Different forms of, 34. Difference between the grammati- cal and the entire, or logical, 207. Concord of subject and predicate, 210-214. Subjective complement, another name for predicate complement, 307. Subjunctive mode, 136-141. defined, 137. introduced by if, though, unless, except, lest, that, 137. What the subjunctive expresses, 137. distinguished from indicative, 138- 139. Subordinate clauses, 46. Subordinating conjunctions, 202. Such, as adjective, as pronoun, 116. Suffixes, Meaning and use of, 285. English, 296-301. Latin, 301-303. Greek, 303. Superlative degree, 123-127. Thing compared included in class, 127. Supplement of a verb, 37. Syntax, 209-250. defined, 209. Synthesis, explained, 61-52. defined, 52. Tenses, 141-146. defincil, 141. Three principal, 141. Table of tense forms, 142. Primary, how used, 142-145. Secondary, 145-146. of infinitive and participles, 152, 157. of the indicative mode, 162. of the subjunctive mode, 164. of the imperative mode, 164. of the passive voice, 164. Concord of, 220. Tetrameter verse. 267. Than, after comparative degree, 127. conjunction. Use of, 233. That, relative pronoun, when pre- ferred to who and which, 104. demonstrative pronoun, 112. demonstrative adjective, 119. used with nouns in the singular, 214. subordinating conjunction, 202. introduces a noun clause, 47. Ellipsis of, 237. The article. Use of, 119-123. as an adverb, 191. Theirs, Use of, and parsing, 96. There, adverb, used to introduce a sentence, 228. Thine, Use of, 96. This, demonstrative pronoun, 112. demonstrative adjective, 119. used with noims in the singular, 214. Thou, Use of, 94. Though, subordinating conjunction, 203. — yet, 203. To, preposition. Use of, 153. To wit. Use of, 175. Transitive verbs, defined, 130. have voice, 134. when in active voice can not make complete predicate, 130. govern the objective case, 224. Trimeter verse, 267. Trochee, foot in verse, 266. INDEX 317 Verb, 12, 13, 129, 189. Complements of, 35-37. Supplement of, 37. Personal and impersonal, 130. Transitive and intransitive, 130. Active and passive voice of, 134. Modes of, 136-141. Tenses of, 141-146. Verbals, 150-161. Nimiber and person, 146-150. Notional, 161. Auxiliary, 161, 168-183. Conjugation of, 167-183. Defective, 174. Regular and irregular, 183. Strong and weak, 183. List of irr^ular, 184-186. Concord of, 210-214. in subordinate clauses, 221. Ellipsis of, 237-238. Verse, defined, 263. Blank, 265. classified, 267. Dissyllabic, 266-270. Trisyllabic, 266, 271-273. Voice, 134. Active, 134. Passive, 134-135. W We, pronoun, 92. Special uses of, 93. Weak verbs, 183. What, as interrogative pronoun, 100- 101. to introduce exclamation, 101. equivalent to that which, 106. to introduce a noim clause, 106. as an adjective, 107. Whether, as pronoun, 101. subordinating conjunction, 203. — or, 203. Which, as interrogative pronoun, 100. as relative pronoun, 102-103. Inflection of, 103. distinguished from wh^) and that, 104. Old use of, 106. as an adjective, 106. Who, interrogative pronoun, 100. as relative pronoun, 102-103. declined, 103. Uses of, 103-104. Whose, Use of, 105. Whosoever, declined, 107. Words, 7. classified according to use, 8. classified according to formation, 284. analyzed, 303. Ye, Use of, 94. Yes, not an adverb, 191. Yet, 202. You, pronoun, 92. I with plural verb, 212. Yours, Use of, and parsing, 96. MAXWELL'S NEW GRAMMARS By WILUAM H. MAXWELL, Ph.D., LL.D. Superintendent of Schools, City of New York Elementaiy Gnunmar . . $0.40 School Grammar . . j|o.6o THE ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR presents in very small space all the grammar usually taught in elemen- tary schools. ^ It gives the pupil an insight into the general forms in which thought is expressed, and enables him to see the meaning of complicated sentences. The explanatory matter is made clear by the use of simple language, by the elimination of unnecessary technical terms, and by the frequent introduction of illustrative sentences. The definitions are simple and pre- cise. The exercises are abundant and peculiarly ingenious, A novel device for parsing and analysis permits these two subjects to be combined in one exercise for purposes of drill. ^The SCHOOL GRAMMAR contains everything needed by students in upper grammar grades and secondary schools. It covers fully the requirements of the Syllabus in English issued by the New York State Education Department. ^ The book treats of grammar only, and presents many exercises which call for considerable reflection on the mean- ing of the expressions to be analyzed. Throughout, stress is laid on the broader distinctions of thought and expression. The common errors of written and spoken language are so classified as to make it comparatively easy for pupils to detect and correct them through the application of the rules of grammar. The book ends with an historical sketch of the English language, an article on the formation of words, and a list of equivalent terms employed by other grammari- ans. The full index makes the volume useful for reference. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY (78) °«fe